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DISEASES   OF   POULTRY 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK   •    BOSTON    •    CHICAGO  -    DALLAS 
ATLANTA   •    SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 


THE  MACMILLAN  CO.   OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


DISEASES  OF  POULTRY 


THEIR  ETIOLOGY,  DIAGNOSIS,  TREAT- 
MENT, AND  PREVENTION 


BY 
RAYMOND  PEARL,  FRANK  M.  SURFACE 

AND 

MAYNIE   Rf  CURTIS 

Biologists  in  the  Maine  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1915 

All  rights  reserved 


COPTBIGHT,    1915, 

Bt  the  macmillan  company. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  December,  1915. 


NortaooD  i|rtB8 

J.  8.  Cashing  Co.  —  Berwick. &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE     . 

It  is  probably  safe  to  say  that  considerably  more  than 
fifty  per  cent  of  the  correspondence  of  those  engaged  in 
poultry  work  in  the  agricultural  colleges  and  experiment 
stations  in  this  country  relates  to  poultry  diseases.  The 
poultryman  or  farmer  sees  that  some,  or  perhaps  all,  of 
his  birds  are  ill,  and  he  straightway  writes  to  the  nearest 
college  or  station  to  know  what  the  disease  is,  and  what 
to  do  for  it.  The  Maine  Station  has  for  many  years  been 
the  recipient  of  a  great  number  of  such  inquiries.  It  is 
an  unfortunate,  but  in  the  nature  of  the  case  an  unavoid- 
able fact,  that  in  many  instances  it  is  quite  impossible  to 
make  any  really  satisfactory  reply  to  these  inquiries.  In 
the  vast  majority  of  cases  the  person  who  writes  the  letter 
is  quite  untrained  in  pathology  and  either  describes  no 
symptoms  at  all  or  only  those  very  general  ones  which 
are  common  to  nearly  all  the  ills  of  poultry.  To  one 
who  has  not  handled  this  class  of  correspondence  it  would 
seem  almost  incredible  that  there  should  be  so  many  let- 
ters of  the  following  type :  "  I  have  lost  about  a  third  of 
my  chickens  in  the  last  few  days.  They  seem  a  little 
dumpish  for  a  while  and  then  die.  What  is  the  trouble 
and  what  shall  I  do  for  it  ?  "  To  diagnose  and  prescribe 
on  such  a  basis  of  information  is  impossible.  Yet  the 
hard  fact  remains  that  the  correspondent's  chickens  were 
ill  and  did  die,  and  he  needs  help  to  get  out  of  the  trouble. 

Only  recently  has  any  attempt  been  made  by  our  agri- 
cultural colleges  to  prepare  its  graduates  in  poultry  hus- 
bandry and  general  agriculture  to  meet  intelligently  these 

38186 


vi  Preface 

problems  of  poultry  disease.  Indeed  even  the  veterinary 
schools  have  given  but  scant  attention  to  avian  pathology. 
Yet  there  exists,  scattered  in  the  literature,  a  large  amount 
of  definite  information  regarding  poultry  diseases.  It 
was  the  purpose  of  the  first  edition  of  the  circular  on 
which  the  present  book  is  based  to  give  a  clear  and  rea- 
sonably complete  compilation  and  digest  of  the  information 
then  existing  in  the  literature  regarding  the  commoner 
diseases  of  poultry,  their  diagnosis,  etiology,  treatment, 
and  prognosis. 

The  material  was  put  together  in  the  form  which  seemed 
most  likely  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  practical  poultryman. 
It  was  soon  found  that  in  addition  to  this  use,  the  book 
was  coming  to  be  rather  widely  employed  as  a  text-book 
for  courses  in  the  diseases  of  poultry  in  agricultural  col- 
leges and  higli  schools.  In  preparing  the  present  edition 
the  authors  have  kept  more  definitely  in  mind  this  second 
way  in  which  the  book  may  prove  useful,  and  have  added 
on  that  account  some  material  not  likely  to  be  of  imme- 
diate interest  to  the  poultryman. 

While  none  of  the  authors  is  engaged  in  researches  in 
pathology,  it  is  a  fact  that  they  have  all  had  extensive 
experience  in  the  appearance  at  autopsy  of  chickens  dead 
from  some  one  or  more  of  a  very  wide  variety  of  causes. 
There  are  but  very  few  diseases  mentioned  in  the  book 
with  which  the  authors  have  not  liad  first-hand  experience. 
It  is  hoped  that  the  knowledge  gained  in  this  way  will 
prove  to  have  been  of  some  critical  value  in  the  compila- 
tion of  this  book. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface        v 

List  of  Illustrations ix 

CHAPTER 

I.     General  Considerations  regarding  the  Treat- 
ment OF  Poultry  Diseases         ....  1 
11.     Poultry  Hygiene 8 

III.  The  Diagnosis  of  the  Diseases  of  Poultry        .  36 

IV.  Poultry  Materia  Meoica         .        .        .        .        .  52 
V.     Diseases  of  the  Alimentary  Tract       ...  57 

VI.     Poisons 81 

VII.     Diseases  of  the  Liver 87 

VIII.     Fowl  Cholera,  Fowl  Typhoid  and  Fowl  Plague  102 

IX.     Tuberculosis 115 

X.     Internal  Parasites 133 

XL     Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  System    .        .        .  147 
XII.     Diseases  of  the  Circulatory  System    .        .        .182 

XIII.  Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System  ....  194 

XIV.  Diseases     of     the     Kidneys,     Rheumatism    and 

Limberneck 199 

XV.     External  Parasites .  203 

XVI.     Diseases  of  the  Skin          ......  233 

XVII.     Diseases  of  the  Reproductive  Organs         .        .  245 

XVIIL     White  Diarrhea .  283 

XIX.     Other  Diseases  of  Chickens 301 

XX.     Tumors 312 

XXL     Poultry  Surgery 324 

Glossary  of  Technical  Terms 329 

Index 335 

vli 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIGURE 


PAGE 


1.  Showing  differences  in  constitutional  vigor.    (After  H.  R.  Lewis)  5 

2.  Silver-laced    Wyandottes  showing   great  constitutional    vigor. 

(After  D.  S.  Thompson) 7 

3.  Curtain-front  poultry  house,  exterior.     (Original)      .         .         .11 

4.  Curtain-front  poultry  house,  interior.     (Original)       ...  13 

5.  Crematory.     (Original) 33 

6.  Skeleton  of  cock.     (After  Diirigen) 42 

7.  Dissection  of  hen,     (Original) 44 

8.  Life  history  of  a  coccidium.     (After  Cole  and  Hadley)       .         .  73 

9.  Showing  condition  of  liver  in  blackhead.     (After  Moore)           .  95 

10.  Heart  blood  of  pigeon  infected  with  fowl  cholera.     (After  KoUe 

andHetsch) 103 

11.  Section  of  lung  showing  tubercle  bacilli.    (  After  Himmelberger)  117 

12.  Breastbone  of  fowl  showing  emaciation  in  tuberculosis.     (After 

Ward) 121 

13.  Liver  of  fowl  affected  with  tuberculosis.     (After  Ward)    .        .  122 

14.  Spleen  from  tuberculous  fowl.-    (After  Koch  and  Rabinowitsch)  122 

15.  Tuberculosis  of  intestines  and  mesenteries.     (After  Van  Es  and 

Schalk) 123 

16.  Intestines  and  mesenteries  of  a  fowl  infected  vrith  tuberculosis. 

(After  Ward) 124 

17.  Syringe  used  in  tuberculin  test.     (After  Van  Es  and  Schalk)    .  126 

18.  Head  of  chicken  showing  positive  tuberculin  reaction.     (After 

Van  Es  and  Schalk) 127 

19.  Drepanidotoenia  infundihuUformis,  a  tape  worm  of  the  fowl. 

(After  Stiles)     ■ 135 

20.  Intestine  of   fowl  showing  tape  worms   in  nodular  tseniasis. 

(After  Pearson  and  Warren) 138 

21.  Sketch  showing  method  of  introducing  turpentine  directly  into 

crop.     (After  Gage  and  Ojiperman) 140 

22.  Worms  protruding  from  intestine  of  fowl.     (After  Bradshaw)  .  142 

23.  Heterakis  perspicillum.     (After  Salmon) 144 


X  List  of  Illustrations 

FIGITKE  PAGE 

24.  Trematode  worm  or  fluke.     (After  Thompson)  .        .        .145 

25.  Lungs  of  a  domestic  fowl.     (Original) 147 

26.  Diagrammatic  drawing  of  the  left  lung  of  a  fowl.     (Original)    .     148 

27.  Ventral  surface  of  right  lung  of  a  fowl.     (From  Gadow,  after 

Stieda) 149 

28.  Cross  section  of  small  air  tubes  of  the  lung  of  a  goose.     (From 

Oppel,  after  Schultz) 150 

29.  Fowl's  head  showing  infra-orbital  tumor  caused  by  roup.    (After 

Roebuck) 157 

30.  Showing  appearance  of  a  hen  a  day  before  death  from  roup. 

(After  Harrison  and  Streit) 158 

31.  Diphtheritic  roup  or  canker.     (After  Roebuck)  .        .        .  166 

32.  Aspergillus  fumigatus.     (After  Mohler  and  Buckley)        .         .  176 

33.  Cytodites  mudus,  the  air-sac  mite.     (After  Theobald)        .         .  181 

34.  Bird  suffering  from  spirochcetosis.     (After  Kolle  and  Hetsch)    .  191 

35.  Fowl  spirochetosis.     (From  Kolle  and  Hetsch,  after  Barri)       .  192 

36.  T\\Q  common  hew  louse,  Menopon  pallidum.     (From  Banks)     .  206 

37.  Lipeurus  variabilis,  a  louse  that  infests  poultry.     (From  Banks, 

after  Denny) 207 

38.  Goniodes  dissimilis,  a  louse  that  infests  poultry.    (From  Banks, 

after  Denny) 207 

39.  Feathers  showing  eggs  or  "nits"  of  the  common  hen  louse. 

(Original) 208 

40.  The  common  "red  mite"  of  poultry,  Dermanyssus  gallince. 

(After  Osborn) 214 

41.  Normal  leg  and  leg  of  hen  affected  with  scaly  leg.     (After 

M^gnin) 217 

42.  Leg  of  hen  severely  affected  with  scaly  leg.     (After  Haiduk)     .     219 

43.  Adult  female  of  the  mite  Knemidocoptes  (Dermatoryctes)  mu- 

tans.     (After  Haiduk) 220 

44.  Six-legged  larva  of  Knemidocoptes  {Dermatoryctes)   mutatis. 

(After  Haiduk) 221 

45.  Section  of  the  skin  of  the  leg  of  a  fowl  affected  with  scaly  leg. 

(After  Haiduk) 223 

46.  Egg  containing  female  of  Sarcoptes  IcBvis  var.  gallince.     (After 

Theobald) 225 

47.  Symplectoptes  cysticola,  coimective  tissue  mite.     (After  Theo- 

bald)      227 

48.  "Harvest  bug,"    Tetranychus   (Leptus)    autumnalis.    Larval 

form.     (After  Murray) 227 


List  of  Illustrations  xi 

FIGURE  PACE 

49.  The  poultry  tick,  ^rgras iJe/'sicMS,  adult.     (After  Laurie)  .         .     228 

50.  The  poultry  tick  larva  showing  three   pairs  of   legs.     (After 

Laurie) 229 

51.  The  chicken  flea,  Pwiea;  graHincE  or  aiu'wm.     (After  Kaupp)       .     231 

52.  Head  and  neck  of  fowl  affected  with  generalized  favus.    (After 

Pearson) 233 

53.  The  fungus  Achorion  schonleinii,  which  causes  favus  in  poultry     235 

54.  Sore-head  on   comb,   eyelids,  and  skin.     (After  Hadley  and 

Beach) 239 

55.  Reproductive  organs  of  a  hen.     (After  Duval)   ....  247 

56.  Showing  a  case  of  incomplete  hermaphroditism.     (Original)      .  252 
67.    Oviduct  removed  from  a  laying  hen  andcut  open  along  the  point 

of  attachment  of  the  ventral  ligament.     (Original)      .         .     260 

58.  Triple-yolked  egg.     (Original) 275 

59.  Showing  shapes  of  abnormal  eggs  sometimes  found.     (From 

von  Durski,  after  Landois) 279 

60.  The  normal  ovary  of  a  laying  hen.     (After  Rettger,  Kirkpat- 

rick,  and  Jones) 289 

61.  Ovary  from  a  hen  infected  with  B.  pullomm.     (After  Rettger, 

Kirkpatrick,  and  Jones) 290 

62.  Showing  how  bacillary  white  diarrhea  perpetuates  itself  in  the 

breeding  .stock.     (After  Rettger  and  Stoneburn)  .         .     291 

63.  Ten-day-old  White  Leghorn  chicks  showing  symptoms  of  bacil- 

lary white  diarrhea.     (After  Rettger  and  Stoneburn)  .         .     292 

64.  Normal  ten-day  White  Leghorn  chicks.     (After  Rettger  and 

Stoneburn) 293 

65.  Trachea  of  a  pheasant  showing  gape  worms  {Syngamus  trache- 

alis).     (After  M^gnin) 305 

66.  A  pair  of  Synyamus  tmchealis  attached.     (After  M^gnin)         .  305 

67.  A^^iv  oi  Syngamus  trachealis.     (After  Mdgnin)       .         .         .  307 

68.  Sarcoma  chicken   tumor  No.  1.      Second  generation.      (After 

Rous) 316 

69.  Chicken  tumor  XVIII   in  the  gizzard  of  the   original  fowl. 

(After  Rous  and  Lange) 317 

70.  Osteo-chrondrosarcoma  produced  by  intramuscular  injection  of 

4  cc.  of  the  Berkfeld  filtrate  of  an  extract  of  chicken  tumor 

No.  VII.     (After  Rous  and  Murphy) 318 

71.  The  growth  shown  in  figure  70  after  it  had  been  sawed  open. 

(After  Rous  and  Murphy) 319 

72.  Cysto-adenoma  on  the  serosa  of  the  inte.stine.     (After  Pickens)    322 


DISEASES   OF  POULTRY 


CHAPTER  I 

General  Considerations  Regarding  the  Treatment  of 
Poultry  Diseases 

There  is  general  agreement  on  the  part  of  authorities  on 
poultry  pathology  and  practical  poultrymen  of  long  expe- 
rience that,  in  general,  "doctoring"  poultry  is  not  advisable. 
The  reasons  for  this  attitude  are  primarily  the  following : 

1.  The  unit  of  production  with  poultry  {i.e.,  the  individual 
bird)  is  of  relatively  small  value,  and  if  a  man's  time  is  worth 
anything,  it  is  too  valuable  to  spend  treating  sick  chickens 
individually  unless  they  are  show  specimens  of  great  indi- 
vidual value. 

2.  The  "cured"  chicken  is  a  menace  to  the  owner,  because 
its  identity  is  likely  to  be  overlooked  or  forgotten,  with  the 
result  that  it  goes  into  the  breeding  pen  and  perpetuates 
through  its  offspring  the  constitutional  weakness  which  was 
one  fundamental  factor  in  bringing  about  the  result  that  it, 
rather  than  some  of  its  fellows,  was  ill. 

This  point  of  view  has  been  well  stated  by  Wright  ^  in  the 
following  words : 

"  In  a  large  proportion  of  cases  of  disease,  the  birds  ought  to 
die  or  be  killed.  Even  where  there  is  no  constitutional  taint, 
the  fact  that  they  have  succumbed  to  circumstances  which 

1  Wright,  L.,  "  The  New  Book  of  Poultry."  London  (Cassell 
&  Company),  1905. 

B  1 

Library 


2  Diseases  of  Poultry 

have  not  affected  others,  marks  them  out  as  the  weakest, 
which  unaided  Nature  would  assuredly  weed  out,  and  which 
if  we  preserve  and  breed  from,  perpetuate  some  amount  of 
that  weakness  in  the  progeny,  liheumatism,  for  instance, 
can  be  cured;  of  that  there  is  no  doubt.  But  the  vast 
majority  who  have  had  such  success,  agree  that  the  effects 
are  either  never  recovered  from,  as  regards  strength  and  vigor, 
or  else  that  the  original  weakness  continues ;  and  the  same 
may  be  said  of  some  severe  contagious  diseases,  such  as 
diphtheritic  roup,  which  may  affect  the  strongest.  On 
the  other  hand,  many  diseases  also  apparently  contagious, 
and  so  attacking  healthy  birds  under  certain  predisposing 
conditions  of  exposure  or  other  coincident  strain  upon  the 
system,  do  not  appear  to  leave  serious  results  behind  them, 
and  are  tolerably  definite  in  symptoms  and  character.  It  is 
these  which  may  be  most  successfully  treated,  and  in  which 
treatment  is  most  worth  while  where  fowls  of  value  are  con- 
cerned. But  it  is  significant  that  nearly  all  breeders  who 
rear  really  large  numbers  of  poultry,  gradually  come  to  the 
conclusion  that,  except  in  special  cases,  with  valuable  birds, 
the  most  economical  treatment  of  serious  disease  occurring 
in  a  yard  is  —  execution.  Concerning  this  matter  each 
must  judge  for  himself." 

In  the  case  of  the  utility  poultr\Tnan,  keeping  poultry  solely 
for  the  eggs  and  meat  they  produce,  practically  the  only 
diseased  conditions  which  it  will  pay  him  to  treat  at  all  are 
those  in  which  the  treatment  can  be  applied  to  the  flock  as  a 
whole,  without  the  necessity  of  handling  individual  birds. 
Thus,  for  example,  in  cases  where  the  flock  "goes  off  its 
feed,"  or  has  simple  indigestion  or  a  mild  cold,  the  birds 
can  be  treated  successfully  as  a  flock.  On  the  other  hand, 
in  the  case  of  the  fancier,  who  has  individual  birds  of  con- 
siderable value,  there  will  be  a  much  wider  range  of  diseases 
which  he  will  feel  that  it  is  profitable  for  him  to  treat.     There 


General  Considerations  3 

are,  of  course,  certain  diseased  conditions  which  demand 
individual  treatment,  but  in  which  the  treatment  is  so  simple 
and  the  outcome  is  almost  certain  to  be  so  good,  as  to  justify 
its  employment  even  in  the  case  of  birds  of  ordinary  value. 
An  example  of  such  a  condition  is  found  in  a  crop-bound  bird. 

Prevention  Rather   Than  Cure  the  Ideal 

The  aim  of  every  poultry  keeper,  whether  his  interest  is  in 
the  fancy  or  the  utility  end  of  the  business,  should  be  to 
breed  and  manage  his  birds  so  as  to  prevent  entirely,  or 
reduce  to  a  minimum,  the  occurrence  of  disease.  In  other 
words,  the  attitude  should  be  that  the  end  to  be  sought  is 
to  prevent  the  occurrence  of  disease,  rather  than  to  rely 
on  a  rather  dubious  ability  to  cure  it  after  it  is  there.  Such 
a  standpoint  is  sound  from  every  point  of  view ;  it  is  in  line 
with  the  whole  development  of  modern  medicine.  The 
poultry  doctor  should  regard  his  function  as  the  same  as  that 
of  the  Chinese  physician,  who  is  primarily  employed  to  keep 
the  patient  from  becoming  ill,  only  secondarily  to  cure  him. 

Now  there  are  fundamentally  two  factors  involved  in  the 
continued  maintenance  of  good  health  in  poultrj^  (or,  for  the 
matter  of  that,  in  any  other  animal) .     These  are  : 

1.  A  sound  and  vigorous  constitution,  which  if  present,  is 
something  innate  and  "bred  in  the  bone,"  and  which,  if 
absent,  must  he  bred  into  the  stock. 

2.  A  system  of  poultry  management  {including  feeding, 
housing,  etc.)  ivhich  is  thoroughly  and  absolutely  hygienic. 

We  shall  consider  each  of  these  factors  separately  in  some 
detail. 

Breeding  for  Health,  Vigor  and  Sound  Constitution 

To  have  a  high  degree  of  constitutional  vigor  in  the 
foundation  stock  is  one  of  the  most  certain  assurances  that 


4  Diseases  of  Poultry 

the  poultryman  will  not  be  troubled  with  disease.  This  is 
of  priman-  importance.  In  order  to  breed  constitutional 
vigor  into  the  flock,  the  poultryman  must  train  himself  to 
recognize  at  a  glance  the  condition  of  his  birds.  Are  they 
in  good  condition  or  not  ?  Regarding  the  aspect  of  fowls  in 
health  and  disease  Salmon  ^  has  the  following  to  say : 

"We  say  that  a  bird  is  in  good  health  when  it  appears 
lively,  has  a  clear  eye,  a  bright  red  comb,  is  quick  and  active 
in  its  movements,  has  a  good  appetite  and  when  the  various 
organs  perform  their  functions  in  the  manner  in  which  they 
are  observed  to  act  in  all  birds  that  are  vigorous  and  thriving. 
On  the  other  hand,  we  say  a  bird  is  diseased  when  some 
function  or  functions  of  its  body  are  not  performed  as 
they  are  in  the  great  majority  of  individuals,  or  when  some 
organ  presents  an  unusual  form  or  appearance.  Disease 
has,  therefore,  been  defined  as  a  life  the  manifestations  of 
which  deviate  more  or  less  from  the  normal.  Practically, 
we  say  a  bird  is  diseased  when  we  observe  that  one  or  more 
of  its  functions  are  not  carried  on  in  a  normal  manner,  or 
when  we  find  unusual  growths,  injuries,  or  parasites  affect- 
ing any  of  its  organs." 

Having  acquired  the  ability  to  see  the  individual  birds 
as  individuals,  the  next  step  is  to  learn  to  distinguish  a  good 
bird  from  a  poor  one.  Here  it  is  ever  to  be  kept  in  mind 
that  the  primary  and  most  essential  characteristic  of  a  good 
bird  must  always  be  a  sound  constitution  and  plenty  of 
vitality  and  vigor.  Without  these  qualities  it  is  impossible 
to  have  first  class  stock.  Constitutional  vigor  and  vitality 
may  be  put  as  a  fundamental  requisite  in  the  successful 
practical  breeding  of  poultry.  In  all  kinds  of  breeding 
operations  whether  for  utility  purposes,  or  for  the  fancier's 
show  pen,  or  for  the  purpose  of  experimentation  in  the  field 

1  Salmon,  D.  E.,  "The  Diseases  of  Poultry."  Washington 
(no  date). 


General  Considerations 


6  Diseases  of  Poultry 

of  heredity,  the  first  selection  of  birds  for  the  breeding  pen 
should  be  made  on  the  basis  of  their  general  constitutional 
vigor.  No  bird  which  shows  signs  of  weakness  in  this  funda- 
mental regard  should  ever  be  used  as  a  breeder  under  any 
circumstances.  If  such  a  bird  is  used  the  breeder  will 
eventually  have  to  pay  the  penalty. 

The  external,  visible  evidences  of  a  sound  constitution 
and  a  possession  of  abundant  vitality  and  vigor  are  numerous. 
In  the  first  place  the  bird  of  sound  constitution  will  be  in 
perfect  health.  Perhaps  its  most  striking  characteristic  will 
be  an  independence  of  disposition  and  demeanor.  By  this 
is  not  necessarily  meant  aggressiveness.  The  bird,  whether 
male  or  female,  which  is  forever  picking  quarrels  with  its 
fellows  is  by  no  means  always  the  bird  of  greatest  vigor. 
Strange  as  it  may  seem  a  bird  may  indeed  be  very  far  from 
a  mollycoddle  and  yet  have  a  peaceable  disposition.  It 
may  be  taken  as  an  unfailing  characteristic  of  birds  of  high 
constitutional  vigor,  however,  that  they  are  able  to  take 
care  of  themselves  and  may  not  be  imposed  upon,  or  bullied 
by  their  fellows,  with  impunity.  While  they  may  not  pick 
a  quarrel,  they  are  abundantly  able  to  make  a  forceful 
presentation  of  the  merits  of  their  end  of  any  debate  which 
another  bird  may  choose  to  enter  upon  with  them.  In 
other  words  they  have,  as  has  been  said,  an  independence 
of  disposition ;  an  ability,  reaching  to  the  limits  of  gallina- 
ceous capacity,  to  meet  all  situations  which  may  arise  in 
the  day's  work  of  a  fowl,  whether  food  getting,  fighting, 
rearing  young,  or  what  not. 

The  bird  of  high  constitutional  vigor  will  have  a  thrifty 
appearance,  with  a  bright  eye,  and  clean,  well-kept  plumage. 
The  head  will  be  broad  and  relatively  short,  giving  in  its 
appearance  plain  indication  of  strength.  It  will  show 
nothing  of  the  long-drawn-out,  sickly,  crow-like  appearance 
of  the  head  which  is  all  too  common  amongst  the  inhabitants 


General  Considerations  7 

of  the  average  poultry  yard.  The  beak  will  be  relatively 
short  and  strong,  thus  correlating  with  the  general  confor- 
mation of  the  head.  Comb  and  wattles  will  be  bright  in 
color  and  present  a  full-blooded,  healthy,  vigorous  appear- 
ance. 

The  body  of  the  bird  of  high  constitutional  vigor  will  be 
broad  and  deep  and  well  meated,  with  a  frame  well  knit  to- 
gether, strong  in  the  bone  but  not  coarse.     In  fowls  of  strong 


Fig.  2:  —  Six  Silver-laced  Wyandottes,  which  have  great  constitutional 
vigor  and  vitality.  These  birds  averaged  to  lay  204  eggs  each  in  a  year. 
Only  birds  in  perfect  health  and  high  constitutional  vigor  can  make 
such  records.     (After  D.  S.  Thompson.) 


constitution  and  great  vigor  all  the  secondary  sexual  differ- 
ences will  usually  be  well  marked.  In  other  words  tlie  males 
will  be  masculine  to  a  degree  in  appearance  and  behavior, 
and  the  females  correspondingly  feminine.  It  must  be 
noted,  however,  that  this  last  is  a  general  rule  to  which  there 
are  occasional  exceptions. 


CHAPTER   II 

Poultry  Hygiene 

Second  in  importance  only  to  high  constitutional  vigor 
and  health  is  attention  to  the  basic  rules  of  hygiene  and  sani- 
tation in  the  management  of  poultry.  In  view  of  the  prev- 
alent misunderstanding  or  lack  of  understanding  of  these 
principles  it  seems  wise  to  devote  one  chapter  to  an  outline 
of  the  more  important  points  which  need  to  be  looked  after 
in  hygienic  poultry  keeping.  Attention  to  the  rules  and 
principles  here  set  forth  will  go  a  great  way  towards  pre- 
venting the  occurrence  of  disease.  This  does  not  mean  that 
if  these  rules  are  not  followed  disease  and  destruction  will 
forthwith  result.  Every  one  knows  of  plenty  of  instances 
of  more  or  less  successful  poultry  keeping  under  the  most 
insanitary  and  unhygienic  of  conditions.  So,  similarly, 
human  beings  are  able,  when  forced  to  do  so,  to  live  under 
unhygienic  conditions.  But  every  civilized  country  in  the 
world  believes  that  the  most  economical  insurance  against 
the  steady  loss  of  national  wealth  which  the  prevalence  of 
disease  involves  is  the  enforcement  of  sanitary  regulations 
throughout  its  domain.  Again,  many  men  who  do  not 
carry  fire  insurance  on  their  buildings  go  through  life  with- 
out having  any  of  them  burn  down.  But  this  is  no  argument 
against  the  fact  that  it  is  a  sound  economic  policy  to  carry 
fire  insurance.  In  poultry  keeping  many  may  be  successful 
for  a  time  in  managing  their  birds  in  defiance  of  the  laws  of 
sanitation  and  hygiene ;  a  very  few  may  be  successful  in 
8 


Poultry  Hygiene  9 

this  practice  for  a  long  time,  but  in  the  long  run  the  vast 
majority  will  find  that,  thorough,  careful  and  intelligent 
attention  to  these  laws  will  be  one  of  the  best  guaranties 
of  permanent  success  that  they  can  find. 

Poultry  hygiene  and  sanitation  will  be  considered  here  un- 
der seven  main  heads,  as  follows  :  I.  Housing.  II.  Feeding. 
III.  The  Land.  IV.  Exercise.  V.  External  Parasites. 
VI.  Disposal  of  the  Dead.  VII.  Isolation  of  Sickness. 
What  is  said  under  all  of  these  heads  is  intended  to  apply 
(unless  a  specific  statement  to  the  contrary  is  made)  both 
to  adult  birds  and  to  chicks.  No  discussion  of  the  hygiene 
of  incubation,  or  of  the  relative  merits  of  artificially  and 
naturally  hatched  chickens  will  be  undertaken  here,  because 
these  are  special  subjects  falling  outside  the  field  of  general 
poultry  hygiene. 

/.    Poultry  House  Hygiene  and  Sanitation 

A.  General  Principles  of  Poultry  Housing.  —  In  the 
management  of  adult  fowls  there  are  in  the  main  two 
things  to  be  considered,  housing  and  feeding.  A  vast 
multitude  of  methods  of  doing  these  two  things  to  poultry 
have  been  tried  during  the  history  of  the  industry. 

There  have  been  published  plans  for  poultry  houses  of  all 
conceivable  shapes  and  sizes.  Long  houses,  short  houses, 
tall  houses,  low  houses ;  square,  hexagonal,  octagonal  and 
round  houses ;  heated  houses  and  cold  houses ;  all  these 
and  many  more  have  had  their  advocates,  and  detailed  plans 
for  their  construction  can  be  found.  It  would  appear  that 
there  must  be  realized  here  the  primary  condition  of  the 
experimental  method,  namely  the  "trying  of  all  things." 
It  only  remains  to  discover  that  which  is  "good"  in  order 
that  we  may  "hold  fast"  to  it. 

This  discovery  had  indeed  been  made  in  regard  to  a  few 


10  Diseases  of  Poulfri/ 

of  the  basic  things  in  the  housing  of  poultry.  It  would  be 
strange  if  something  had  not  come  out  of  all  the  indignities 
to  which  innocent  and  inoffensive  generations  of  fowls  have 
been  submitted  in  the  way  of  dwelling  accommodations.  It 
is  now  clearly  recognized,  and  generally  admitted  by  all 
competent  poultrymen,  that  certain  things  are  absolutely 
essential  in  any  poultry  house  which  is  to  give  good  results. 
These  are  (1)  fresh  air,  (2)  freedom  from  dampness,  (3) 
freedom  from  draughts,  (4)  sunlight  and  (5)  cleanliness. 

If  these  five  things  are  realized  in  a  poultry  house  the  birds 
will  thrive  and  be  productive  in  it,  provided  they  are  well 
and  regularly  fed  and  watered.  It  makes  no  difference 
particularly  to  the  well-being  of  the  birds  how  these  neces- 
sary specifications  of  their  dwelling  are  attained.  To  the 
poultr\Tnan,  however,  it  is  important  that  they  be  attained 
at  the  smallest  expense,  having  regard  to  (a)  initial  cost, 
(b)  repairs  and  up-keep  and  (c)  labor  necessary  to  operate 
the  house  to  get  the  specified  results.  The  housing  prob- 
lem is  to  the  poultryman,  then,  both  a  biological  and  an 
economic  one.  The  biological  solution  is  definite.  The 
requisites  named  above  must  be  met,  and  there  is  one  addi- 
tional factor  to  be  taken  into  account ;  namely,  size  of  house. 
Experiments  made  at  various  times  and  places  indicate 
clearly  that  in  northern  climates,  where  birds  must  be  shut 
up  in  the  house  during  a  part  of  the  year  in  order  to  give 
best  results,  there  should  be  allowed  in  the  house  at  least 
three  square  feet  of  floor  space  per  bird,  and  preferably  a 
little  more.  Four  square  feet  floor  space  per  bird  is  a  liberal 
allowance. 

A  factor  which  it  was  formerly  thought  necessary  to  con- 
trol in  the  housing  of  poultry  was  the  temperature.  It  was 
long  held  that  if  fowls  were  to  lay  well  in  the  winter  it  was 
necessary  that  they  should  be  in  a  heated  house.  Later 
experience  has  shown  conclusively  that  this  was  an  utterly 


Poultry  Hygiene 


11 


12  Diseases  of  Poultry 

fallacious  idea.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  even  in  the  coldest  cli- 
mates, fowls  will  lay  better  during  the  winter  months  in  a 
properly  constructed  house  wide  open  to  the  outside  air  in 
the  day  time,  so  that  they  are  living  practically  out  of  doors, 
than  in  any  heated  house  which  has  yet  been  devised.  If  a 
laying  house  is  dry  the  temperature  factor  may  be  neglected. 
If  a  house  has  a  tendency  to  dampness,  it  will  give  poor 
results  regardless  of  temperature. 

From  the  economic  standpoint  there  are  two  systems  of 
housing  poultry  to  be  considered.  One  of  these  is  the 
system  of  long,  continuous  houses  for  the  laying  birds.  The 
other  is  the  so-called  colony  house  system,  in  which  the 
birds  are  housed  in  small  separate  houses  which  may  either 
be  set  a  considerable  distance  apart  over  a  relatively  wide 
area,  or  may  be  placed  relatively  near  one  another.  Each 
system  has  its  strenuous  advocates.  Experience  covering  a 
fairly  long  period  of  years  now  has  demonstrated  that  both 
systems  have  good  points.  As  to  which  shall  be  adopted 
in  a  particular  instance  depends  upon  a  variety  of  considera- 
tions, each  in  some  degree  peculiar  to  the  particular  case  in 
hand. 

In  the  extreme  northern  part  of  the  country  where  the 
climate  is  very  cold  in  the  winter  and  there  is  an  abundance 
of  snow  there  can  be  no  question  that  the  long  house  is  much 
to  be  preferred  to  a  colony  system.  There  are  two  reasons 
for  this.  In  the  first  place  experience  indicates  that  the 
birds  are  somewhat  more  productive  and  keep  in  better 
condition  in  a  properly  constructed  and  managed  long  house 
than  in  colony  houses.  Furthermore  the  labor  expense 
involved  in  caring  for  a  given  number  of  fowls  is  much  less, 
under  such  climatic  conditions,  than  with  the  colony  house 
system,  where  the  birds  are  scattered  over  a  wider  area  and 
more  paths  must  be  broken  out  in  the  snow. 

The  great  advantage  of  the  colony  house  system  is  its 


Poultry  Hygiene 


13 


14  Diseases  of  Poultry 

flexibility.  Furthermore  it  gets  around  the  troubles  in- 
volved in  the  contamination  of  the  ground  by  the  long- 
continued  keeping  of  poultry  on  the  same  small  area.  In 
general,  local  conditions  and  circumstances  must  decide  in 
each  individual  case  which  system  of  housing  shall  be 
adopted. 

B.  Cleanliness.  —  The  thing  of  paramount  importance 
in  the  hygienic  housing  of  poultry  is  cleanliness.  By  this 
is  meant  not  merely  plain,  ordinary  cleaning  up,  in  the  house- 
wife sense,  but  also  bacteriological  cleaning  up;  that  is, 
disinfection.  All  buildings  or  structures  of  whatever  kind 
in  which  poultry  are  housed  during  any  part  of  their  lives 
should  be  subjected  to  a  most  thorough  and  searching  clean- 
ing and  disinfection  at  least  once  every  year.  This  cleaning 
up  should  naturally  come  for  each  different  structure  {i.e., 
laying,  colony  or  brooder  house,  individual  brooder,  incuba- 
tor, etc.)  at  a  time  which  just  precedes  the  putting  of  new 
stock  into  this  structure. 

How  to  clean  a  ^poultry  house.  —  Not  every  poultryman  of 
experience  even,  knows  how  really  to  clean  a  poultry  house. 
The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  remove  all  the  litter  and  loose  dirt 
which  can  be  shoveled  out.  Then  give  the  house  —  floor, 
walls  and  ceiling  —  a  thorough  sweeping  and  shovel  out 
the  accumulated  debris.  Then  play  a  garden  hose,  with 
the  maximum  water  pressure  which  can  be  obtained,  upon 
floor,  roosting  boards,  walls  and  ceiling,  until  all  the  dirt 
which  washes  down  easily  is  disposed  of.  Then  take  a 
heavy  hoe  or  roost  board  scraper  and  proceed  to  scrape  the 
floor  and  roosting  boards,  clean  of  the  trampled  and  caked 
manure  and  dirt.  Then  shovel  out  what  has  been  accumu- 
lated and  get  the  hose  into  action  oncfe  more  and  wash  the 
whole  place  down  again  thoroughly  and  follow  this  with 
another  scraping.  With  a  stiff  bristled  broom  thoroughly 
scrub  walls,  floors,   nest   boxes,   roost  boards,   etc.     Then 


Poultry  Hygiene  15 

after  another  rinsing  down  and  cleaning  out  of  accumulated 
dirt,  let  the  house  dry,  out  for  a  day  or  two.  Then  make  a 
searching  inspection  to  see  if  any  dirt  can  be  discovered.  If 
so,  apply  the  appropriate  treatment  as  outlined  above.  If, 
however,  everything  appears  to  be  clean,  the  time  has  come 
to  make  it  really  clean  by  disinfection.  To  do  this  it  is 
necessary  to  spray  or  thoroughly  wash  with  a  scrub  brush 
wet  in  the  solution  used  all  parts  of  the  house  with  a  good 
disinfectant  at  least  twice,  allowing  time  between  for  it  to 
dry.  For  this  purpose  3  per  cent  cresol  solution  is  recom- 
mended. The  chief  thing  is  to  use  an  effective  disinfectant 
and  plenty  of  it,  and  apply  it  at  least  twice.  A  discussion 
of  disinfectants  immediately  follows  this  section.  To  com- 
plete the  cleaning  of  the  house,  after  the  second  spraying  of 
disinfectant  is  dry  apply  a  liquid  lice  killer  (made  by  putting 
1  part  crude  carbolic  acid  or  cresol  with  3  parts  kerosene) 
liberally  to  nests  and  roosts  and  nearby  walls.  After  all 
this  is  done  the  house  will  be  clean.  In  houses  cleaned 
annually  in  this  way  the  first  step  is  taken  towards  hygienic 
poultry  keeping. 

The  same  principles  which  have  been  here  brought  out 
should  be  applied  in  cleaning  brooders,  brooder  houses,  and 
other  things  on  the  plant  with  which  the  birds  come  in  con- 
tact. 

What  has  been  said  has  reference  primarily  to  the  annual 
or  semiannual  cleaning.  It  should  not  be  understood  by 
this  that  no  cleaning  is  to  be  done  at  any  other  time.  On 
the  contrary  the  rule  should  be  to  keep  the  poultry  house 
clean  at  all  times,  never  allowing  filth  of  any  kind  to  accumu- 
late and  using  plenty  of  disinfectant. 

Disinfection.  —  In  the  matter  of  disinfection  there  are 
several  options  open  to  the  poultryman.  He  may  make  his 
own  disinfectant,  or  he  may  purchase  proprietary  compounds 
like  Zenoleum,   Carbolineum  or  a  host  of  other  "eums" 


16  Diseases  of  Poultry 

which  confront  him  at  every  turn  in  his  reading  of  poultry 
periodicals,  or  he  may  buy  a  plain  disinfectant  like  formalde- 
hyde, or  carbolic  acid. 

There  is  no  more  effective  general  disinfectant  than 
formaldehyde,  and  it  also  has  the  advantage  of  being  cheap. 
We  have  used  it  regularly  for  some  years  past  with  excellent 
results.  A  5  per  cent  solution  of  commercial  formalin  in 
water  is  applied  to  walls,  floors  and  roost  boards  by  means 
of  a  pressure  spray  pump.  Various  hand  pumps  of  this 
type  are  on  the  market.  It  will  pay  the  poultryman  to  get 
one  of  the  well  made  higher  priced  sorts.  If  a  spray  pump 
is  not  available  the  formaldehyde  solution  may  be  put  on 
with  a  brush.  In  any  case  a  liberal  amount  should  be  used. 
When  applying  it  all  doors  and  windows  should  be  open 
to  diminish  as  much  as  possible  the  irritating  effect  of  the 
vapor  on  the  worker.  His  hands  should  also  be  protected 
by  the  use  of  well  oiled  leather  gloves. 

Some  writers  have  advocated  the  formaldehyde  gas  method 
for  disinfecting  poultry  houses,  using  the  permanganate 
method  of  generating.  This,  however,  is  indicated  only 
for  rooms  which  can  easily  be  closed  up  air  tight.  It  costs 
too  much  in  time  and  trouble  to  make  any  form  of  "fresh 
air"  poultry  house  even  moderately  air  tight.  The  for- 
maldehyde gas  method  is  well  adapted  to  disinfecting  and 
fumigating  feed  rooms,  incubator  cellars,  brooder  houses 
and  all  houses  which  can  be  readily  made  air  tight.  For  the 
benefit  of  those  who  wish  to  use  the  method  for  such  purposes 
the  following  directions  are  given.  This  will  give  a  very 
strong  fumigation  and  disinfection  but  such  is  indicated 
about  poultry  establishments. 

Formaldehyde  gas  disinfection.  —  First  make  the  room  as 
tight  as  possible  by  stopping  cracks,  key-holes,  etc.,.  with 
pieces  of  cloth  or  similar  substance.  Open  bins  and  doors 
of  closets,  etc.,  to  allow  free  access  of  the  gas.     Use  a  metal 


Poultry  Hygiene  17 

or  earthen  dish  for  a  generator,  of  sufficient  size  so  that  the 
liquid  will  not  spatter  or  boil  over  on  the  floor,  since  the 
permanganate  will  stain.  The  temperature  of  the  room 
should  not  be  below  50°  F.  and  more  effective  disinfection 
will  be  obtained  if  the  temperature  is  80°  F.  or  above  at  the 
beginning.  Sprinkle  boiling  w^ater  on  the  floor  or  place  a 
kettle  of  boiling  water  in  the  room  to  create  a  moist  atmos- 
phere. Spread  the  permanganate  evenly  over  the  bottom 
of  the  dish  and  quickly  pour  in  the  formaldehyde  (40  per 
cent  strength  as  purchased).  Leave  and  tightly  close  the 
room  at  once  and  allow  to  remain  closed  for  4-6  hours  or 
longer,  then  air  thoroughly.  Use  23  ounces  of  permanganate 
and  3  pints  of  formaldehyde  to  each  1000  cubic  feet  of  space. 

Cresol  disinfectant. —  For  a  disinfectant  of  the  coal-tar  or 
carbolic  acid  type,  we  have  found  a  cheap  and  satisfactory 
sort  to  be  compound  cresol  solution.  This  may  be  used 
alone  or  as  a  second  spray  following  formalin  for  spraying 
and  disinfecting  the  houses  after  they  are  cleaned,  disinfect- 
ing brooders,  brooder  houses,  incubators,  nests  and  every- 
thing else  about  the  plant  which  can  be  disinfected  with  a 
liquid  substance.  It  is  particularly  effective  against  mites 
and  other  insect  pests.  It  has  been  very  satisfactory  in 
disinfecting  incubators  between  hatches.  Any  person  can 
easily  make  this  disinfectant.  The  following  directions  for 
its  manufacture  are  quoted  from  Bulletin  179  of  the  Maine 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

The  active  base  of  cresol  soap  disinfecting  solution  is  com- 
mercial cresol.  This  is  a  thick,  sirupy  fluid,  varying  in  color 
in  different  lots  from  a  nearly  colorless  fluid  to  a  dark  brown. 
It  does  not  mix  readily  with  water,  and,  therefore,  in  order 
to  make  satisfactory  a  dilute  solution,  it  is  necessary  first 
to  incorporate  the  cresol  with  some  substance  like  soap 
which  will  mix  with  water  and  will  carry  the  cresol  over 
into  the  mixture.     The  commercial  cresol,  as  it  is  obtained, 


18  Diseases  of  Poultry 

is  a  corrosive  substance,  being  in  this  respect  not  unlike 
carbolic  acid.  It  should,  of  course,  be  handled  with  great 
care  and  the  pure  cresol  should  not  be  allowed  to  come  in 
contact  with  the  skin.  If  it  does  so  accidentally  the  spot 
should  be  immediately  washed  off  with  plenty  of  clean  water. 
The  price  of  commercial  cresol  varies  with  the  drug  market. 
It  can  be  obtained  through  any  druggist.  In  purchasing 
this  article  one  should  order  simply  "commercial  cresol." 

Measure  out  3^  quarts  of  raw  linseed  oil  in  a  4  or  5 
gallon  stone  crock;  then  weigh  out  in  a  dish  1  lb.  6  oz.  of 
commercial  lye  or  "Babbit's  potash."  Dissolve  this  lye  in 
as  little  water  as  will  completely  dissolve  it.  Start  with  | 
pint  of  water,  and  if  this  will  not  dissolve  all  the  lye,  add 
more  water  slowly.  Let  this  stand  for  at  least  3  hours  imtil 
the  lye  is  completely  dissolved  and  the  solution  is  cold ; 
then  add  the  cold  lye  solution  very  slowly  to  the  linseed  oil, 
stirring  constantly.  Not  less  than  5  minutes  should  be 
taken  for  the  adding  of  this  solution  of  lye  to  the  oil.  After 
the  lye  is  added  continue  the  stirring  until  the  mixture  is 
in  the  condition  and  has  the  texture  of  a  smooth  homoge- 
neous liquid  soap.  This  ought  not  to  take  more  than  a  half 
hour.  Then  while  the  soap  is  in  this  liquid  state,  and 
before  it  has  a  chance  to  harden  add,  with  constant  stirring, 
8^  quarts  of  commercial  cresol.  The  cresol  will  blend 
perfectly  with  the  soap  solution  and  made  a  clear,  dark 
brown  fluid.  The  resulting  solution  will  mix  in  any  propor- 
tion with  water  and  yield  a  clear  solution. 

Cresol  soap  is  an  extremely  powerful  disinfectant.  In  the 
Station  poultry  plant  for  general  purposes  of  disinfecting  the 
houses,  brooder  houses,  incubators,  nests  and  other  wood 
work,  it  should  be  used  in  a  3  per  cent  solution  with  water. 
Two  or  three  tablespoons  of  the  cresol  soap  to  each  gallon 
of  water  will  make  a  satisfactory  solution.  This  solution 
may  be  applied  through  any  kind  of  spray  pump  or  with  a 


Poultry  Hygiene  19 

brush.  Being  a  clear,  watery  fluid  it  can  be  used  in  any 
spray  pump  without  difficuhy.  For  disinfecting  brooders 
or  incubators  which  there  is  reason  to  beheve  have  been 
particularly  liable  to  infection  with  the  germs  of  white 
diarrhea  or  other  diseases  the  cresol  may  be  used  in  double 
the  strength  given  above  and  applied  with  a  scrub  brush  in 
addition  to  the  spray. 

C.  Fresh  Air  and  Light.  —  Too  great  stress  cannot  be 
laid  on  the  importance  of  plenty  of  fresh  air  in  the  poultry 
house  if  the  birds  are  to  keep  in  good  condition.  And  it 
must  be  remembered  in  this  connection  that  "fresh"  air, 
and  cold  stagnant  air  are  two  very  different  things.  Too 
many  of  the  types  of  curtain  front  and  so-called  "fresh"  air 
houses  now  in  use  are  without  any  provision  other  than  an 
obliging  southerly  wind,  to  insure  the  circulation  or  changing 
of  air  within  the  house.  Even  with  an  open  front  house  it 
is  wise  to  provide  for  a  circulation  of  air  in  such  way  that 
direct  drafts  cannot  strike  the  birds.  This  applies  not  only 
to  the  housing  of  adult  birds  in  laying  houses,  but  also  to 
the  case  of  young  stock  in  colony  houses  on  the  range. 
Further  a  circulation  of  fresh  air  under  the  hover  in  artificial 
rearing  is  greatly  to  be  desired  and  will  have  a  marked  effect 
on  the  health  and  vigor  of  the  chicks. 

Not  only  should  the  poultry  house  be  such  as  to  furnish 
plenty  of  fresh  air,  but  it  should  also  be  light.  The  prime 
importance  of  sunlight  in  sanitation  is  universally  recognized 
by  medical  authorities.  Disease  germs  cannot  stand  pro- 
longed exposure  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  Sunlight  is 
Nature's  great  disinfectant.  Its  importance  is  no  less  in 
poultry  than  in  human  sanitation.  The  following  statement 
made  some  years  ago  (1904)  by  a  writer  signing  himself 
"M"  in  Farm  Poultry  (Vol.  15)  brings  home  in  a  few  words 
the  importance  of  having  plenty  of  light  in  the  poultry 
house. 


20  Diseases  of  Poultry 

"Light  in  the  poultry  house  has  been  found  by  a  writer 
a  great  help  in  keeping  the  house  clean  and  keeping  the  fowls 
healthy.  Probably  there  is  no  greater  assistance  to  the  dis- 
eases of  poultry  than  dark  and  damp  houses,  and  dark  houses 
are  frequently  damp.  In  recent  years  I  have  had  both  kinds 
of  experience,  those  with  the  hens  confined  in  a  large,  dry 
and  light  house,  and  with  hens  confined  in  a  dark  house  in 
which  a  single  window  looking  towards  the  setting  sun  fur- 
nished the  only  light.  Being  forced  to  use  the  latter  build- 
ing for  an  entire  winter  I  found  it  impossible  to  get  it  thor- 
oughly dried  out  after  a  rain  had  rendered  the  walls  damp. 
By  spring  some  of  the  fowls  that  had  been  confined  there 
began  to  die  of  a  mysterious  disease  and  a  post-mortem  ex- 
amination showed  it  to  be  liver  disease.  Later  the  roup 
broke  out  in  the  same  house  and  this  dread  disease  continued 
with  the  flock  for  months  exacting  a  heavy  toll  in  laying 
hens." 

D.  Avoid  Dampness.  —  Of  all  unfavorable  environmental 
conditions  into  which  poultry  may,  by  bad  management, 
be  brought,  a  damp  house  is  probably  the  worst.  Nothing 
will  diminish  the  productivity  of  a  flock  so  quickly  and 
surely  as  will  dampness  in  the  house,  and  nothing  is  so 
certain  and  speedy  an  excitant  to  roup  and  kindred  ills. 
The  place  where  poultry  are  housed  must  be  kept  dry  if  the 

flock  is  to  be  productive  and  free  from  disease. 

E.  Provide  Clean  and  Dry  Litter.  —  Experience  has  demon- 
strated that  the  best  way  in  which  to  give  fowls  exercise 
during  the  winter  months  in  which,  in  northern  climates 
at  least,  they  must  be  housed  the  greater  part  if  not  all  of 
the  time,  is  by  providing  a  deep  litter  in  which  the  birds 
scratch  for  their  dry  grain  ration.  For  this  litter  the  Maine 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station  uses  pine  planer  shavings, 
with  a  layer  of  straw  on  top.  Whatever  the  litter  it  should 
be  changed  as  often  as  it  gets  damp  or  dirty. 


Poultry  Hygiene  21 

//.    Hygienic  Feeding 

Having  housed  our  fowls  they  must  be  fed.  Here  the 
same  sort  of  history  is  to  be  found  as  in  the  case  of  housing. 
Substantially  all  known  edible  substances  must,  at  some  time 
or  other,  have  been  suggested  or  tried  as  component  parts 
of  the  rations  of  fowls.  Not  only  have  many  and  curious 
substances  been  suggested  as  poultry  food,  but  they  have 
been  combined  in  formulae  as  weird  as  a  medieval  apothe- 
cary's prescription.  Actually  practical  poultry  feeding  is 
much  more  of  an  art  than  a  science,  in  the  present  state  of 
knowledge.  While  for  pedagogical  reasons  it  seems  wise  in 
the  teaching  of  poultry  husbandry  to  spend  a  considerable 
amount  of  time  in  calculating  balanced  rations  and  nutri- 
tive ratios,  it  is  very  doubtful  if  all  such  activity  has  any 
real  or  tangible  relation  to  practical  poultry  feeding. 

Such  attempts  at  a  science  of  poultry  feeding  would  ap- 
pear to  suffer  from  a  serious  defect.  The  assumption  is 
made  in  calculating  a  nicely  balanced  ration  that  all  hens 
are  going  to  partake  of  this  ration  in  the  same  way.  But 
this  is  very  far  from  the  biological  actuality.  Some  individ- 
ual hens  like  no  grain  except  corn,  and  if  fed  a  mixture  will 
eat  only  corn.  Others  are  very  partial  to  beef  scrap,  and 
so  on.  To  any  one  who  studies  the  behavior  of  fowls  it  is 
clear  that  the  ration  on  paper  and  the  ration  in  the  crop  are 
two  very  different  things. 

The  successful  feeding  of  poultry  depends  upon  experi- 
ence and  acquaintance  with  fowls.  The  basic  biological 
factor  is,  once  more,  individuality.  Each  individual  hen 
is  an  independent  living  thing,  possessing  well  marked  likes 
and  dislikes  of  her  own  with  respect  to  food.  There  can 
be  no  question  that  the  best  results  in  the  way  of  egg  pro- 
duction and  meat  production  would  be  obtained  if  a  skillful 
feeder  could  feed  each  individual  fowl  by  and  for  itself. 


22  Diseases  of  Poultry 

Evidence  that  this  is  the  case  is  found  in  the  fact,  which  is 
universal  wherever  poultry  is  kept,  that  on  the  average 
fowls  kept  in  small  flocks,  of,  say,  under  25  birds  each,  do 
relatively  much  better  than  larger  flocks.  The  production 
and  money  returns  per  bird  are  greater.  The  fundamental 
reason  for  this  is  that  the  birds  in  small  flocks  get  better  care 
as  individuals.  When  a  man  has  only  such  a  small  number 
to  take  care  of  he  can  recognize  their  individual  peculiarities 
more  easily.  P'urthermore  an  individual  bird  stands  a 
better  chance  of  having  its  peculiar  taste  gratified  in  a  small 
than  in  a  large  flock. 

So  while  the  biological  ideal  would  be  to  feed  each  bird 
individually,  this  is  obviously  impossible  in  practice.  With 
poultry  the  individual  unit  of  production  (the  hen)  is  so 
small  that  it  must  be  handled  in  flocks.  The  correct  prin- 
ciple of  management  is  to  feed  and  handle  a  flock  in  such  a 
way  as  to  afford  the  maximum  opportunity  for  the  expres- 
sion and  gratification  of  the  individual  preferences  of  the 
component  units,  with  a  minimum  labor  cost.  The  larger 
the  flock  and  the  plant  as  a  whole,  the  more  machine-like 
the  methods  of  feeding  and  handling  must  be.  They  must 
of  necessity  be  calculated  to  suit  that  mythical  creature, 
the  average  hen.  Coincidently  the  total  production  or 
profit  per  bird  will  diminish.  Presently  a  point  is  reached 
in  size  of  plant  where  the  outgo  exceeds  the  income  over  a 
period  of  years.  Such  a  plant  if  it  has  a  hustling  business 
man  at  the  head  takes  a  fancy  name  to  itself,  advertises  a 
great  deal,  invents  a  "system,"  writes  and  sells  a  book 
about  it,  manufactures  incubators  and  supplies,  in  general 
endeavors  to  make  a  loud  noise  about  what  a  profitable 
thing  the  poultry  business  is,  and  finally  goes  dismally, 
completely  and  permanently  "broke." 

In  the  practical  feeding  of  flocks  of  poultry  large  enough 
to  be  a  commercial  proposition,  the  methods  which  have 


Poultry  Hygiene  23 

been  worked  out  empirically  by  the  successful  poultryman 
are  essentially  attempts  to  satisfy  the  individual  tastes  of 
the  birds  to  as  great  a  degree  as  possible,  at  a  minimum  labor 
cost.  This  result  is  obtained  in  practice  by  offering  to  the 
flock  a  variety  of  food  materials  so  that  they  may  have  some 
opportunity  of  choice  as  to  what  they  shall  eat.  If  we  feed 
corn,  wheat,  and  oats  the  fowl  which  likes  corn  has  the  op- 
portunity to  live  on  corn,  whereas  the  fowl  which  likes 
about  three  parts  wheat  and  one  part  oats  is  able  to  satisfy 
her  taste  in  this  regard. 

As  a  result  of  this  manifest  need  for  a  variety  of  food  it 
has  come  about  that  the  practice  now  generally  accepted 
as  best  is  to  put  regularly  before  fowls  food  substances 
belonging  to  four  different  categories.  These  categories 
are: 

1.  Dry  whole  (or  coarsely  broken)  grains  {e.g.,  corn, 
wheat,  oats,  barley,  etc.). 

2.  Ground  grains  {e.g.,  bran,  middlings,  corn  meal, 
linseed  meal  and  other  finely  ground  grains). 

3.  Animal  products  {e.g.,  beef  scrap,  blood  meal,  fish 
scrap,  green  cut  bone,  etc.). 

4.  Succulent  or  green  foods  {e.g.,  mangolds,  cabbages, 
beets,  sprouted  oats,  green  corn  fodder,  etc.). 

The  proportions  in  which  these  different  kinds  of  food 
material  are  fed  differ  to  a  considerable  extent  among 
different  poultr^inen.  The  exact  proportions  in  which  they 
are  given  really  matter  very  little,  owing  to  the  fact,  al- 
ready brought  out,  that  the  hen  compounds  her  own  ration 
to  her  own  taste  if  given  the  material.  Furthermore  it 
makes  little  difference  whether  the  ground  grains  are  fed 
dry  or  wet.  It  is  cheaper  to  feed  them  dry  (because  of 
labor  saved),  and  therefore  the  "dry-mash  system"  of 
feeding  has  become  popular. 

There  are  certain  basic  principles  of  hygienic  feeding  which 


24  Diseases  of  Poultry 

must  always  be  looked  after  if  one  is  to  avoid  diseases. 
There  are : 

A.  Purity.  —  It  should  be  a  rule  of  every  poultnTiian  never 
to  feed  any  material  which  is  not  clean  and  wholesome. 
Musty  and  moldy  grain,  tainted  meat  scraps  or  cut  bone, 
table  scraps  which  have  spoiled,  and  decayed  fruits  or  vege- 
tables should  never  be  fed.  If  this  consideration  were  al- 
ways kept  in  mind  many  cases  of  undiagnosed  sickness  and 
deaths,  and  low  condition  in  the  stock  would  be  avoided. 
Keep  all  utensils  in  which  food  is  placed  clean. 

B.  Avoid  Overfeeding.  —  Intensive  poultry  keeping  involves 
of  necessity  heavy  feeding,  but  one  should  constantly  be  on 
the  lookout  to  guard  against  overfeeding,  which  puts  the 
bird  into  a  state  of  lowered  vitality  in  which  its  natural 
powers  of  resistance  to  all  forms  of  infectious  and  other 
diseases  are  reduced.  The  feeding  of  high  protein  concen- 
trates like  linseed  or  cotton  seed  meal  needs  to  be  particularly 
carefully  watched  in  this  respect. 

C.  Provide  Plenty  of  Green  Food.  Under  natural  condi- 
tions poultry  are  free  eaters  of  green  grass  and  other  plants. 
Such  green  food  supplies  a  definite  need  in  metabolism,  the 
place  of  which  can  be  taken  by  no  other  sort  of  food  material. 
It  is  not  enough  merely  to  supply  succulence  in  the  ration. 
Fowls  need  a  certain  amount  of  succulent  food,  but  they 
also  need  fresh  green  food.  Green  sprouted  oats,  when 
properly  prepared,  are  an  excellent  source  of  winter  green 
food.  Full  directions  for  sprouting  oats  are  given  in  Bulletin 
179  of  the  Maine  Station. 

D.  Provide  Fresh  and  Clean  Drinking  Water.  ■ —  The  most 
sure  and  rapid  method  by  which  infectious  diseases  of  all 
kinds  are  transmitted  through  a  flock  of  birds  is  by  means 
of  the  water  pail  from  which  they  all  drink  in  common. 
Furthermore  the  water  itself  may  come  from  a  contaminated 
source  and  be  the  origin  of  infection  to  the  flock.     Finally 

Library 


Poultry  Hygiene  25 

it  is  difficult  to  devise  any  satisfactory  drinking  fountain 
in  which  the  water  is  not  hable  to  contamination  from  Utter, 
manure,  etc.  All  these  considerations  indicate  the  advis- 
ability of  adding  to  all  drinking  water  which  is  given  to  poul- 
try some  substance  which  shall  act  as  a  harmless  antiseptic. 
The  best  of  all  such  substances  yet  discovered  for  use  with 
poultry  is  potassium  permanganate.  This  is  a  dark,  reddish- 
purple  crystalline  substance  which  can  be  bought  of  any 
druggist.  A  pound  will  last  for  a  long  time.  It  should  be 
used  in  the  following  way  :  In  the  bottom  of  a  large  mouthed 
jar,  bottle  or  can,  put  a  layer  of  potassium  permanganate 
crystals  an  inch  thick.  Fill  up  the  receptacle  with  water. 
This  water  will  dissolve  all  of  the  crystals  that  it  is  able  to. 
This  will  make  a  stock  saturated  solution.  As  this  solution 
is  used  add  more  water  and  more  crystals  as  needed,  always 
aiming  to  keep  a  layer  of  undissolved  crystals  at  the  bottom. 
Keep  a  dish  of  stock  solution  like  this  alongside  the  faucet 
or  pump  where  the  water  is  drawn  for  the  poultry.  When- 
ever any  water  is  drawn  for  either  chicks  or  adult  foivls  add 
enough  of  the  stock  solution  to  give  the  water  a  rather  deep  tvine 
color.  This  means  1  to  2  teaspoons  of  the  stock  solution  to 
10  quarts  of  water.  At  the  same  time  one  should  clean 
and  disinfect  the  drinking  pails  and  fountains  regularly, 
just  as  he  would  if  he  were  not  using  potassium  permanga- 
nate. At  the  Maine  Station  plant  for  some  years  past  no 
bird  has  ever  had  a  drink  of  water  from  the  time  it  was 
hatched  which  did  not  contain  potassium  permanganate, 
except  such  water  as  it  got  from  mud  puddles  and  the  like. 
Dr.  G.  B.  Morse, ^  a  well  known  authority  on  poultry  dis- 
eases, had  the  following  to  say  regarding  this  point  in  a 
recent  address.  After  describing  the  potassium  permanga- 
nate method,  as  well  as  two  others,  directed  to  the  same  end, 

1  Morse,  G.  B.,   "The  Gospel  of  Cleanliness  of  Poultrymen." 
Reliable  Poult.  Jour.,  Vol.  17,  No.  8,  pp.  756,  757,  775-777,  1910. 


26  .  Diseases  of  Poultry 

but  in  the  opinion  of  the  present  writers  not  so  desirable  as 
this,  he  went  on  to  say  :  "  Water-borne  diseases  are  frequent 
in  the  poultry  yard.  Clean  and  disinfect  your  drinking- 
fountains  (and  you  must)  ever  so  well,  if  you  are  permitting, 
consciously  or  unwittingly,  to  run  at  large  one  bird  sick  with 
any  of  the  contagious  diseases  of  the  head  parts  or  with  bowel 
diseases,  you  may  count  on  that  water  supply  being  con- 
taminated in  less  than  one  hour's  time.  In  the  case  of  a 
large  flock  affected  with  flagellate  diarrhea  I  have  myself 
found  the  flagellates  in  less  than  one  hour's  time  in  the  drink- 
ing water  which  had  been  sterilized  and  placed  in  thoroughly 
disinfected  fountains.  Do  you  not  see  where  such  a  condi- 
tion as  this  forces  you?  Right  up  against  the  principle  of 
the  individual  drinking  cup.  Ridiculous,  do  you  say?  Not 
a  bit.  I  did  not  say  'the  individual  drinking  cup,' but  the 
'principle  of  the  individual  drinking  cup.'  Boards  of  health 
are  recognizing  that  by  means  of  the  common,  public  drinking 
cup  foul  and  terrible  diseases  are  being  spread  among  people. 
It  is  just  so  with  your  poultry,  and  while  you  cannot  adopt 
the  individual  cup  you  can  incorporate  the  principle  of  it 
in  your  hygienic  methods  by  adding  .  .  .  one  of  the 
antiseptics  named.  It  is  true,  in  the  proportions  named, 
these  remedies  do  not  disinfect  the  water,  only  act  as  antisep- 
tics, that  is,  act  to  hinder  the  developement  of  bacteria 
and  other  microbes.  The  water  itself  should  be  changed 
frequently.  This  hindering  of  microbian  growth  occurs  not 
only  in  the  fountain  but  is  kept  up  in  the  intestinal  tract." 


III.     The  Land 

One  of  the  most  important  considerations  in  poultry  sani- 
tation is  to  keep  the  ground  on  which  the  birds  are  to  live, 
both  as  chicks  and  as  adults,  from  becoming  foul  and  con- 
taminated.    This  is  not  a  very  difficult  thing  to  do  if  one 


Poultry  Hygiene  27 

has  enough  land  and  practices  a  definite  and  systematic  crop 
rotation  in  which  poultry  form  one  element.  On  the  open 
range  where  chicks  are  raised  a  four  year  rotation  is  operated 
at  the  Maine  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  and  serves 
its  purpose  well.  This  system  of  cropping  for  the  shorter 
period  is  as  follows :  First  year,  chickens ;  second  year,  a 
hoed  crop,  such  as  beets,  cabbage,  mangolds  or  corn ;  third 
year,  seed  down  to  timothy  and  clover,  using  oats  or  barley 
as  a  nurse  crop ;  fourth  year,  chickens  again.  When  the 
land  can  be  spared  it  is  left  in  grass  the  fourth  year,  and  the 
chickens  are  not  put  on  it  until  the  fifth  year.  The  reason 
for  the  particular  crops  mentioned  above  being  used  is 
that  they  are  all  things  which  can  be  very  advantageously 
used  in  furnishing  green  food  for  the  poultry  at  different 
seasons  of  the  year. 

To  maintain  the  runs  connected  with  a  permanent  poultry 
house,  where  adult  birds  are  kept,  in  a  sw^eet  and  clean  condi- 
tion is  a  more  difficult  problem.  About  the  best  that  one 
can  do  here  is  to  arrange  alternate  sets  of  runs  so  that  one 
set  may  be  used  one  year  and  the  other  set  the  next,  purify- 
ing the  soil  so  far  as  may  be  by  plowing  and  harrowing 
thoroughly  annually,  and  planting  exhaustive  crops.  Fail- 
ing the  possibility  of  alternating  in  this  way,  disinfection 
and  frequent  plowing  are  the  only  resources  left. 

The  following  excellent  advice  on  this  subject  is  given  by 
the  English  poultry  expert  Mr.  E.  T.  Brown  ^ :  "Tainted 
ground  is  responsible  for  many  of  the  diseases  from  which 
fowls  suffer,  and  yet  it  is  a  question  that  rarely  receives  the 
attention  it  deserves.  The  chief  danger  of  tainted  soil 
arises  when  fowls  are  kept  in  confinement,  but  still  we  often 
find  that  even  with  those  at  liberty  the  land  over  which  they 
are  running  is  far  from  pure.  So  long  as  the  grass  can  be 
kept  growing  strongly  and  vigorously  there  is  small  fear  of 
1  Farm  Poultry,  Vol.  18. 


28  Diseases  of  Poultry 

foul  ground,  as  the  growth  absorbs  the  manure ;  it  is  when 
the  grass  becomes  worn  away  that  the  chief  danger  arises. 
The  manure  constantly  falling  upon  the  same  small  area, 
and  there  being  nothing  to  use  it  up,  the  land  is  bound  in  a 
short  space  of  time  to  become  so  permeated  as  to  be  thor- 
oughly unfit  for  fowls.  The  question  is  very  often  asked  in 
connection  with  this  subject  as  to  how  many  fowls  a  certain 
sized  piece  of  land  will  accommodate  the  wdiole  year  through. 
Occasionally  one  may  see  in  some  of  the  agricultural  or  poul- 
try journals  this  question  answered,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact 
to  give  any  stated  number  is  most  misleading.  It  depends 
very  largely  upon  the  class  of  soil,  as  some  can  carry  twice 
as  many  birds  as  others ;  it  depends  upon  the  breed  of 
poultry,  some  being  much  more  active  than  others,  and  thus 
requiring  more  space ;  it  depends,  too,  upon  the  time  of 
year,  because  during  the  spring  and  summer,  when  there  is 
an  abundance  of  vegetable  grow^th  in  the  soil,  a  considerably 
larger  number  of  birds  can  be  maintained  than  during  the 
autumn  or  winter.  The  number  must  be  varied  according 
to  these  circumstances,  and  no  hard  and  fast  rule  is  appli- 
cable." 

"The  results  of  tainted  ground  are  generally  quickly 
noticeable,  as  the  fowls  have  a  sickly  appearance,  the 
feathers  lose  their  brilliant  luster,  and  the  wings  begin  to 
droop.  Roup,  gapes,  and  other  ailments  speedily  show  them- 
selves, causing,  if  not  death  itself,  considerable  loss  and  un- 
pleasantness. One  of  the  greatest  advantages  to  be  derived 
from  portable  houses  is  that  they  so  greatly  reduce  the  risk 
of  tainted  ground,  as  they  are  being  constantly  moved  from 
one  place  to  another,  thus  evenly  distributing  the  manure. 
When  it  is  remembered  that  each  adult  fowl  drops  nearly  a 
hundredweight  of  manure  in  the  course  of  a  year,  the  im- 
portance of  this  question  will  be  immediately  realized.  It  is 
quite  possible,  however,  provided  that  suitable  precautions 


Poultry  Hygiene  29 

are  taken,  to  keep  a  comparatively  small  run  pure  for  a 
long  time.  If  the  grass  is  short  it  should  be  occasionally 
swept,  in  this  manner  removing  a  good  deal  of  the  manure. 
Another  important  point  is  to  always  have  around  the  house 
a  space  of  gravel,  upon  which  the  birds  should  be  fed,  and 
if  swept  once  or  twice  a  week  this  will  have  a  wonderful 
effect  in  preserving  the  purity  of  the  grass  portion.  Any  one 
who  has  observed  poultry  will  know  how  fond  they  are  of 
constantly  being  near  the  house,  and  thus  the  greater 
portion  of  their  droppings  falls  within  its  immediate  vicinity. 
The  shape  of  the  run  also  has  a  great  bearing  upon  the  length 
of  time  it  will  remain  untainted,  a  long  narrow  run  being 
much  superior  to  a  square  one.  I  have  proved  by  my  own 
experience  how  true  this  is,  and  probably  a  long  and  narrow 
run,  containing  the  same  amount  of  space  will  remain  pure 
twice  as  long.  It  is  unnecessary  here  to  go  into  a  full  ex- 
planation of  why  this  is  so,  but  I  may  state  the  fact,  which 
I  am  confident  is  quite  correct.  If  the  space  at  one's  dis- 
posal is  very  limited  it  is  a  good  plan  to  divide  it  into  two 
equal  parts,  placing  the  house  in  the  middle.  During  one 
year  one-half  would  be  available  for  the  fowls,  the  other 
being  planted  with  some  quickly  growing  vegetables,  the 
order  being  reversed  the  year  following.  The  vegetable 
growth  has  the  effect  of  quickly  using  up  the  manure,  and 
in  this  manner  quite  a  small  plot  of  land  can  be  heavily 
stocked  with  poultry  for  an  unlimited  number  of  years.  If 
the  soil  becomes  at  all  foul  it  is  a  good  plan  to  water  it 
with  a  1  per  cent  solution  of  sulphuric  acid,  or  to  apply  a 
light  dressing  of  gas  lime." 


/T".    Exercise 

If  poultry  are  to  be  in  good  condition,  and  maintain  their 
normal  resistance  to  disease  they  must  exercise.     As  chicks 


30  Diseases  of  Poultry 

they  will  do  this  on  the  range.  In  the  case  of  adults  (in 
cold  climates)  the  most  feasible  way  to  bring  this  about  is 
to  provide  litter  and  make  the  birds  scratch  for  their  food. 


V.    External  Parasites 

In  hygienic  poultry  keeping  the  birds  must  be  kept  reason- 
ably free  at  all  times  of  lice,  mites,  and  all  other  forms  of 
external  parasites.  Directions  for  dealing  with  this  matter 
are  given  in  detail  farther  on  in  this  book  in  the  chapter  on 
External  Parasites.  It  is  desired  here  merely  to  call  atten- 
tion to  the  matter  as  one  of  general  principles  of  hygienic 
poultry  management. 

TV.    Disposal  of  Dead  Birds 

On  every  poultry  plant  and  around  every  farm  there  are 
bound  to  occur  from  time  to  time  a  greater  or  less  number  of 
deaths  of  chickens  and  adult  fowls  from  disease  or  other 
natural  causes.  The  disposal  of  these  dead  bodies  offers  a 
problem  to  the  poultryman,  the  correct  solution  of  which 
may  in  many  cases  become  a  very  important  matter.  This 
is  especially  true  in  the  cases  of  death  from  contagious 
diseases,  which  include  a  considerable  proportion  of  the 
deaths  of  poultry  generally.  The  method  usually  practiced 
by  the  farmer  and  poultryman  for  the  disposition  of  dead 
carcasses  is  unsanitary  in  the  extreme.  To  throw  the  dead 
bodies  on  the  manure  pile  is  to  invite  the  spread  of  disease 
on  the  plant.  Burying  is  far  from  })eing  a  satisfactory  way 
of  dealing  with  the  matter  for  two  reasons.  Unless  the  grave 
is  dug  deep,  which  costs  a  good  deal  of  time  and  labor,  there 
is  considerable  likelihood  that  dogs  or  other  marauding 
animals  will  dig  out  the  carcasses,  and,  after  feeding  on  them, 
scatter   the   remains   around    on   the   top   of   the   ground. 


Poultry  Hygiene  31 

Furthermore,  burying  cannot  be  resorted  to  at  all  during  the 
winter  months  when  the.ground  is  frozen. 

The  only  really  sanitary  method  of  dealing  with  dead 
bodies  is  to  incinerate  them.  The  difficulty  of  following 
this  plan  in  practice  is  that  the  farmer  or  poultryman  usually 
does  not  have  any  suitable  source  of  heat  ready  at  hand  at 
all  times.  To  be  sure,  during  certain  seasons  of  the  year, 
those  poultr\Tiien  who  employ  large  brooder  houses  with  a 
hot  water  heating  system  have  a  furnace  in  operation,  and 
the  dead  chicks  can  be  burned  up  in  the  furnace.  This, 
however,  covers  only  a  part  of  the  year.  At  other  times 
resort  must  be  had  to  burying  or  some  other  means  of  dis- 
posal, as  the  poultryman  is  not  likely  to  fire  up  a  large  fur- 
nace for  the  sake  of  burning  a  few  dead  birds. 

To  meet  this  requirement  there  has  recently  been  devised 
at  the  Maine  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  the  small 
crematory  here  described.  The  construction  was  carried 
out  with  the  idea  of  keeping  the  first  cost  as  low  as  possible, 
in  order  that  there  should  be  nothing  about  it  which  any 
poultryman  or  farmer  could  not  easily  afford  to  duplicate. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  cost  of  materials  for  the  crematory 
was  less  than  ten  dollars.  The  labor  was  done  by  the 
poultryman  and  his  assistant  at  odd  times,  when  an  hour 
or  two  could  be  spared  for  this  work.  The  result  is,  there- 
fore, not  beyond  the  reach  of  any  poultryman  or  farmer. 
At  the  same  time  the  crematory  is  so  satisfactory  in  opera- 
tion that  any  one  who  builds  one  will  wonder,  after  he  has 
completed  and  used  it  for  a  time,  why  he  did  not  long  before 
have  so  simple  and  sanitary  an  adjunct  to  his  plant. 

The  crematory  show^n  in  Fig.  5  is  very  simple  in  con- 
struction. It  consists  essentially  of  a  cement  base  or  fire 
box,  bearing  on  its  top  a  series  of  grate  bars  which  are  in 
turn  covered  by  a  cremating  box  or  oven  in  which  the  ma- 
terial to  be  incinerated  is  placed. 


32  Diseases  of  Foul  try 

The  crematory  is  sufficiently  large  to  take  care  of  all  the 
needs  of  a  plant  carrying  1000  head  of  adult  stock,  raising 
3000  to  4000  chickens  annually,  and  in  which  a  good  deal  of 
anatomical  and  physiological  research  is  going  on,  necessitat- 
ing a  much  larger  amount  of  waste  animal  material  than  the 
ordinary  commercial  poultryman  would  have.  Therefore, 
it  is  doubtful  if  it  would  be  necessary  in  any  but  the  very 
largest  commercial  plants  to  build  a  larger  crematory  than 
the  one  here  described. 

In  building  this  an  excavation  was  first  made  for  the  base, 
in  which  a  lot  of  loose  stones  and  gravel  were  placed,  in 
order  to  secure  adequate  drainage  below  the  cement.  On 
top  of  this  the  cement  base  and  fire  box  were  made. 

This  base  consists  essentially  of  a  rectangular  box  made  of 
cement,  open  at  the  top,  and  with  a  small  opening  in  front 
through  which  the  fire  is  fed  and  which  serves  as  a  draft. 
The  walls  are  about  6  inches  thick.  The  outside  dimensions 
of  the  fire  box  base  are  3  feet  4  inches  by  2  feet  6  inches. 
The  inside  dimensions  of  the  fire  box  are  2  feet  3  inches  by 
1  foot  9|  inches  by  1  foot  4  inches.  Across  the  top  of 
the  fire  box  there  were  laid,  while  the  cement  was  still  soft, 
some  old  grate  bars  from  a  small  steam  boiler,  which  had 
been  discarded  and  thrown  on  the  dump  heap.  These  were 
set  close  together  and  held  firmly  in  place  when  the  cement 
hardened.  They  form  the  grate  on  which  the  material  to  be  in- 
cinerated is  thrown.  These  old  boiler  grate  bars,  besides  cost- 
ing nothing,  had  another  advantage ;  namely  that  of  their 
thickness  and  weight.  When  they  become  thoroughly  heated 
from  the  fire  below  they  will  hold  the  heat  for  a  consider- 
able time,  charring  and  burning  the  animal  material  above. 

The  incinerating  chamber  proper  was  made  from  gal- 
vanized iron  by  a  local  tinsmith.  This  consists  of  a  rec- 
tangular box  having  the  following  dimensions:  Length  2 
feet   2  inches;    width   1   foot   10  inches;    height   1  foot  6 


Poultry  Hygiene 


33 


34  Diseases  of  Poultry 

inches.  In  the  top  of  this  is  cut  a  round  hole,  12  inches  in 
diameter  which  is  protected  by  a  hinged  cover  15  inches  by 
14|  inches.  This  galvanized  box  has  no  bottom.  It  is 
placed  on  top  of  the  grate  bars,  and  held  firmly  in  place  by 
cement  worked  up  around  its  lower  edges.  At  the  back 
end  of  this  iron  cremating  box  is  an  opening  for  a  stove  pipe, 
which  is  necessary  in  order  to  give  the  proper  draft.  It 
is  found  in  practice  that  only  a  short  piece  of  stove  pipe  is 
necessary  to  get  sufficient  draft  to  make  a  very  hot  fire, 
which  entirely  consumes  the  birds  in  a  few  hours.  The 
funnel  may  best  be  left  removable  so  that  when  the  crema- 
tory is  not  in  use  it  can  be  taken  off  and  stored  inside  the 
wooden  box,  which  then  sets  over  the  galvanized  iron  por- 
tion to  protect  it  from  the  weather. 

It  is  important  in  locating  a  crematory  of  this  kind  to 
plan  matters  so  that  there  will  be  good  drainage  from  around 
it.  In  particular  pains  should  be  taken  to  insure  that  water 
does  not  run  into  the  firebox  and  freeze  during  the  winter. 

In  operation  the  apparatus  works  as  follows :  Dead  birds 
are  thrown  into  the  incinerating  chamber  through  the  open- 
ing in  the  top  and  the  lid  closed,  while  a  wood  fire  is  burning 
in  the  fire  box  below.  The  aim  should  be  to  use  dry  wood 
and  get  a  quick  and  very  hot  fire.  This  first  roasts  the 
material  and  then  chars  it,  and  finally  reduces  it  to  fine  ashes. 


VII.    Isolation  of  Sickness 

Whether  one  expects  to  treat  the  bird  or  to  kill  it,  every 
individual  that  shoics  signs  of  sickness  should  he  removed  from 
the  general  flock.  When  the  bird  has  been  isolated  a  decision 
as  to  what  will  be  done  about  the  case  can  be  reached  at 
leisure,  and  in  the  meantime  the  flock  is  not  subjected  to 
the  danger  of  infection.  This  is  an  important  matter  with 
young  chickens  as  well  as  with  adult  stock. 


Poultry  Hygiene  35 


The  Essentials  of  Poultry  Hygiene 

To  summarize  this  discussion  of  poultry  hygiene  and 
sanitation  it  may  be  said  that  the  essentials  in  the  hygienic 
and  sanitary  management  of  poultry  are 

1.  Clean  Houses. 

2.  Clean  Air. 

3.  Clean  Food. 

4.  Clean  Water. 

5.  Clean  Yards  and  Clean  Range. 

6.  Clean  Incubators  and  Brooders. 

7.  Clean  Birds,  Outside  and  Inside. 


CHAPTER   III 
The  Diagnosis  of  the  Diseases  of  Poultry 

The  first  thing  that  the  poultry  keeper  whose  birds  are  ill 
wants  to  know  is  :  "  What  ails  my  chickens  f  "  Before  he  can 
use  this  or  any  other  book  on  poultry  diseases  effectively  in 
getting  advice  for  the  treatment  of  disease  he  must  diagnose 
the  trouble.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  to  help  him  do 
this,  and  in  this  w^ay  make  this  book  more  useful  to  the 
practical  poultryman.  At  the  outstart  it  should  be  said 
that  the  absolutely  certain  differential  diagnosis  of  particidar 
diseases  of  poultry,  by  the  farmer  or  poultryman,  either  on  the 
basis  of  external  symptoms  or  post-mortem  examination,  is  in 
nearly  every  case  impossible.  The  best  that  can  be  done  prac- 
tically is  to  determine  into  what  general  class  of  diseases  a 
particular  trouble  falls. 

There  are  two  general  sources  of  information  upon  which  to 
base  a  diagnosis  of  disease.     These  are  : 
I.   External  symptoms. 

II.   Post-mortem  examination. 


EXTERNAL  SYMPTOMS,  WITH  A  TABLE  TO  AID  IN  THE  IDENTIFI- 
CATION   OF   THE    CHIEF   CLASSES    OF    POULTRY   DISEASES 

There  are  certain  external  symptoms  which  are  charac- 
teristic in  a  w^ay  of  nearly  all  diseases.     These  sj^mptoms 
merely  indicate  that  the  bird  is  sick ;  they  are  of  no  value  for 
purposes  of  differential  diagnosis. 
36 


The  Diagnosis  of  the  Diseases  of  Poultry 


37 


These  general  symptoms  of  illness  may  be  described  as 
follows :  A  sick  fowl  is-  usually  quiet,  and  does  not  move 
about  unless  disturbed.  It  stands  or  sits  with  the  neck 
contracted  so  that  the  head  is  pulled  well  in  to  the  body, 
giving  the  bird  a  "humped  up"  appearance.  The  eyes  are 
often  closed,  entirely  or  partly,  giving  the  bird  a  sleepy 
appearance.  Often  the  feathers  are  roughened  and  stick 
out  all  over  the  body.  The  comb  and  wattles  may  be  dark 
or,  on  the  other  hand,  may  be  very  pale. 

When  a  bird  shows  these  general  symptoms  of  illness  it 
should  be  picked  up  and  isolated  and  an  effort  made  to 
obtain  a  more  precise  diagnosis.  In  doing  this  the  following 
table  of  the  chief  external  symptoms  may  be  found  of  use. 

This  table  aims  to  direct  one  to  the  discussion  of  general 
classes  of  disease.  The  identification  of  special  individual 
diseases  should  be  attempted  only  after  reading  over  the 
chapters  covering  the  general  class  involved.  In  general 
it  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  this  table  is  not  intended  to  tell 
the  reader  what  the  disease  he  finds  is,  but  solely  to  tell  him 
what  parts  of  this  book  to  read  in  any  given  case  in  order  to 
make  a  diagnosis. 

Table  of  External  Symptoms  which   may  be  of  Some  Value 
IN  Differential  Diagnosis 

The  numbers  in  parentheses  denote  the  pages  to  be  consulted. 


Abdomen,  swollen. 

Belching  of  gas. 

Breathing  abnormal  (i.e.,  too 
rapid,  too  slow,  wheezing, 
whistling,  snoring  or  in  any 
way  different  from  normal). 


Diseases  which  the  Symptom  named 
MAY  Indicate 


Peritonitis     (77),     Dropsy     (80), 

White  diarrhea  (283). 

Inflammation  of  crop  (61). 

Diseases  of  the  respiratory  sys- 
tem (147),  Crop  bound  (58), 
Arsenic  poisoning  (82),  Peri- 
carditis (182),  Gapes  (304), 
Air  sac  mite  (180). 


38 


Diseases  of  Poult ri/ 


Symptom 

MAY  Indicate 

Choking. 

Arsenic  poisoning  (82). 

Comb,  pale. 

Tuberculosis  (115),  Dropsy  (80), 

Air-sac  mite  (180),  Infectious 

leukaemia    (185),   White   diar- 

rhea (283). 

Comb,  first  dark  then  pale. 

Roup  (155). 

Comb,  first  pale,  but  later   dark. 

Enteritis  (67). 

Comb,  very  dark. 

Liver    disease     (87),    Blackhead 

(94),  Ptomaine  poisoning  (85), 

Congestion     of     lungs     (177), 

Pneumonia  (178). 

Comb,  yellow. 

Liver  diseases  (87),  Visceral  gout 

(200). 

Comb,      with      white,      powdery 

White  comb  (236). 

scurf. 

Comb,  with  white  spots. 

P'avus  (233). 

Constipation. 

Simple   constipation    (69),    Indi- 

gestion    (70),    Gastritis    (63), 

Inflammation  of  Oviduct  (262). 

Convulsions. 

Arsenic  poisoning   (82),  Copper, 

lead    or    zinc    poisoning    (83), 

Epilepsy  (196),  "Harvest-bug" 

(227). 

Cough. 

Diseases  of  the  respiratory  sys- 

tem (147). 

Crop,  enlarged  and  hard. 

Crop  bound  (58). 

Crop,  enlarged  and  soft. 

Inflammation  of  crop   (61),  En- 

larged crop  (62),  Inflated  crop 

(63),    Gastritis    (63),    Cholera 

(102). 

Diarrhea. 

Diseases  of  the  alimentary  tract 

(57),   Arsenic   poisoning    (82), 

- 

Copper,  lead  or  zinc  poisoning 

(83),  Diseases  of  the  liver  (87). 

Blackhead    (94),    Tuberculosis 

(115),    Cholera     (102),    Roup 

(155),    White   diarrhea    (185), 

Coceidiosis  (71),  Mercury  poi- 

soning (83). 

Droppings,  blue. 

Copper  poisoning  (83). 

The  Diagnosis  of  the  Diseases  of  Poultry 


39 


Symptom 

Diseases  which  the  Symptom  named 

MAY  Indicate 

Droppings,  bloody. 

Diarrhea   (64),  IMercury  poison- 

ing (83),  Blackhead  (94),  En- 

teritis (67),  Arsenic  poisoning 

(82),  Ptomaine  poisoning,  (85) 

Diseases  of  the  Uver  (87). 

Droppings,  bright  emerald  green. 

Cholera  (102),  Copper  poisoning 

(83). 

Droppings,  brownish  followed  by 

Diseases  of  the  Uver  (87). 

yellow  diarrhea. 

Droppings,  hard  and  dry. 

Constipation  (69). 

Droppings,  mucus  in. 

Cholera  (102),  Diarrhea  (64). 

Droppings,  sticky. 

Simple  diarrhea  (64). 

Droppings,  slimy  and  yellow. 

Nodular  tseniasis  (137). 

Emaciation. 

Tuberculosis  (115),  Aspergillosis 

(173),    Visceral     gout     (200), 

Mites    (213),    White   diarrhea 

(283). 

Eye,  expansion  of  pupil. 

Arsenic  poisoning  (82). 

Eye,  sticky  discharge  from. 

Catarrh  (151),  Roup  (155). 

Face,  swollen. 

Roup  (155). 

Fever,  marked. 

Peritonitis      (77),      Aspergillosis 

(173),      Infectious      leukaemia 

(185),  Inflammation  of  oviduct, 

(262). 

Head,  warty  nodules  on. 

Chicken  pox  (237). 

Lameness. 

Tuberculosis   (115),  Aspergillosis 

(173),  Rheumatism  (199),  Scaly 

leg  (216),  Bumble  foot  (326). 

Legs,     roughened,     with     scales 

Scaly  leg  (216). 

raised. 

Mouth,  mucous  discharge  from. 

Congestion    of    the  lungs  (177), 

Pneumonia  (178),  Gapes  (304). 

Mouth,  white  cheesy  patches  in. 

Roup  (155),  Canker  (164). 

Neck,  bent  backward. 

Strychnine  poisoning  (84),  Con- 

gestion of  the  brain  (195),  Wrv 

neck  (202),  Pericarditis  (182). 

Neck,  bent  forward  on  breast. 

Ptomaine  poisoning  (85). 

Neck,  limp. 

Limberneck  (199). 

Nostrils,  discharge  from. 

Diseases  of  the  respiration  sys- 

tem (147). 

40 


Diseases  of  Poult ri/ 


Diseases  which  the  Svmptom  named 

Symptom 

MAY  Indicate 

Paralysis. 

Copper,   lead   or   zinc   poisoning 

(83),      Strychnine      poisoning 

(84),    Apoplexy    (194),    Heat 

prostration  (195),  Polyneuritis 

(197). 

Pulse,  very  rapid. 

Hypertrophy  of  heart  (184). 

Saliva,  copious  secretion. 

Arsenic  poisoning  (82). 

Skin,  puffed  out  in  blisters. 

Emphysema  (304). 

Skin,  scaly  and  inerusted. 

Body  mange  (226),  Favus  (233). 

Staggering. 

Congestion    of    the  brain   (195), 

Leg  weakness  (301),  Ptomaine 

poisoning  (85). 

Thirst,  excessive. 

Hypertrophy  of    the   liver    (90), 

Peritonitis  (77),  Salt  poisoning 

(81),  Aspergillosis  (173),  Tape- 

worms (134),  Cholera  (102). 

Tongue,  hard  and  dry. 

Pip  (171),  Diseases  of  the  respira- 

tory system  (147). 

Tumors,  on  head. 

Roup  (155),  Chicken  pox  (237). 

Urates,  yellow. 

Cholera  (102). 

Vent,  mass  of  inflamed  tissue  pro- 

Prolapse of  oviduct  (2G3). 

jecting  from. 

Vent,  skin  inflamed. 

Vent  gleet  (280). 

POST-MORTEM    EXAMINATION 

Whenever  a  bird  dies  from  a  cause  not  entirely  clear  to 
the  poultryman  a  post-mortem  examination  should  be  made 
in  order  to  learn,  if  possible,  from  the  condition  of  the  in- 
ternal organs  what  it  was  that  caused  death.  The  poultry- 
man  should  familiarize  himself  with  the  appearance  of  the 
internal  organs  in  a  normal  state  of  health,  so  that  he  may 
at  once  recognize  any  departure  from  these  normal  condi- 
tions. 


The  Diagnosis  of  the  Diseases  of  Poultry  41 

The  Nor7}ial  Anatomy  of  the  Domestic  Fowl 

Before  undertaking  a  discussion  of  post-mortem  appear- 
ance it  is  desirable  to  sketch  in  a  brief  way  the  most  essen- 
tial features  of  the  normal  skeletal  and  visceral  anatomy 
of  the  fowl.  If  one  will  study  this  chapter  with  some  care, 
and  at  the  same  time  dissect  a  specimen,  it  will  give  him  a 
sufficiently  good  understanding  of  the  normal  relations  of 
the  parts  to  enable  him  successfully  to  undertake  for  him- 
self post-mortem  examinations  of  his  birds. 

The  Skeleton 

The  bones  of  birds  (zoological  class  Aves)  are  in  their 
structure  somewhat  different  from  the  bones  of  other  ani- 
mals. The  most  essential  difference  consists  in  the  fact 
that  there  are  in  the  bones  of  birds,  as  a  class,  spaces  which 
are  normally  filled  with  air,  forming  a  part  of  the  general 
air  sac  system  connected  with  the  lungs.  The  degree  to 
which  the  bones  have  the  capability  of  being  filled  with  air 
varies  considerably  in  the  different  orders  of  birds.  In 
the  genus  Gallus  (the  domestic  fowl)  this  possibility  is  small 
as  compared  with  what  obtains  in  flying  birds,  for  example. 

The  skeleton  of  the  cock  is  shown  in  Fig.  6.  Its  main 
divisions  are :  the  skull  (1) ;  the  neck  (5) ;  the  trunk  and 
the  limbs  (wings  and  legs). 

Two  parts  are  to  be  distinguished  in  the  skull :  first, 
the  brain  case  or  cranium  proper  (1)  and,  second,  the  face, 
including  the  heak  (2,  3,  and  4).  As  the  skull  bones  grow 
together  early,  one  usually  does  not  see  in  the  skull  of  the 
adult  bird  any  division  or  sutures  between  the  bones. 

The  trunk  skeleton  includes  the  backbone  or  vertebral 
column,  the  ribs,  the  breastbone,  and  the  limb  bones. 

The  skeleton  of  the  7ieck  (5)  is  made  up  of  13  separate 


42 


Diseases  of  Poultry 


vertebrae  of  which  the  first,  called  the  atlas,  is  the 
smallest.  The  vertebrae  of  the  back  (6)  number  seven, 
but   they   are    usually  nearly   completely    grown    together 

into  one  single  mass 
of  bone.  To  these 
vertebrae  of  the  back 
(called  the  thoracic 
vertebra")  are  at- 
tached the  seven 
pairs  of  ribs  (7). 

The  lumbar  verte- 
brae,  of   which    only 
one  or   two   remain, 
/;  are     in     old      birds 

's^   grown  together  with 
^  the    sacral    vertebrae 

(17).  Behind  the 
sacral  vertebrae  come 
the  caudal  (18),  which 
support  the  struc- 
ture known,  rather 
colloquially,  as  the 
"  pope's  nose." 
There  are  sLx  caudal 
vertebrae. 

The  pelvis  consists 
of  three  bones  fused 
together:  the  ilium 
(19),  the  ischium 
(20),  and  the  jmbis 
(21). 

The  breastbone  (8)  bears  a  high  and  sharp  bony  plate, 
the  keel,  to  which  the  breast  muscles  iire  attached.  The 
wings  are  supported  by  the  pectoral  or  shoulder  girdle  of 


Fig.  6.  —  Skeleton  of  cock  (jGallus  sp.).  For 
explanation  of  figures  see  text.  (After 
Diirigen.) 


The  Diagnosis  of  the  Diseases  of  Poultry  43 

bones.  This  girdle  consists  of  the  shoulder  blade  or  scapula 
(9),  the  coracoids  (11),  and  the  "wishbone"  or  furcula  (10). 
In  young  birds  the  furcula  consists  of  separate  paired  bones, 
the  clavicles,  and  the  small  median  ossification,  the  inter- 
clavicle. 

The  wings  include  the  upper  arm,  the  forearm,  the  wrist, 
the  hand,  and  the  fingers.  The  upper  arm  bone,  or  humerus 
(12),  is  a  single  strong  bone  of  the  same  length  as  the  bones 
of  the  forearm.  The  forearm  (13)  contains  two  bones,  the 
radius  and  the  idna.  The  wrist  has  only  two  bones  not 
distinguishable  in  the  figure.  The  hand  (14)  is  made  up 
from  two  bones  which  are  united  at  both  their  upper  and 
lower  ends,  but  separated  in  the  middle.  In  front  of  the 
larger  of  these  two  is  the  small  one-jointed  finger,  the  so- 
called  thumb  (15).  The  second  finger  (16),  which  is  the 
longest  and  strongest,  has  two  joints ;  the  third  finger  is 
one-jointed. 

The  bones  of  the  leg  are  homologous  with  those  of  the 
wing.  The  bone  of  the  thigh,  the  femur  (22),  is  a  single 
bone.  The  loicer  leg  (24),  which  in  the  normal  position  of 
the  bird  extends  backwards  and  downwards  from  the  knee 
(23),  consists  like  the  forearm  of  two  bones :  a  large  tibia 
and  a  very  small  splint-like  bone,  the  fibula.  At  (25)  is 
the  hock  or  ankle  joint.  Below  this  come  the  bones  of  the 
foot.  The  first  of  these  (26)  is  the  tarso-metarsus.  As  an 
outgrowth  from  this  bone  is  the  spur  (31).  Of  the  four  toes 
the  inner  or  hind  toe  (30)  has  two  joints  ;  the  second  or  inner 
front  toe  (29)  has  three  joints ;  the  middle  front  toe  (28)  has 
four ;  and  the  outer  front  toe  (27)  has  five  joints. 


The  Viscera 

The  main  features  of  the  normal  visceral  anatomy  of  the 
fowl  are  shown  in  Fig.  7,  which  represents  a  dissection  from 


u 


Diseases  of  Poultry 


the  left  side  of  a  hen 
carried  out  in  such  a  way 
as  to  show  the  principal 
organs.  Beginning  at  the 
anterior  end  we  see,  when 
the  skin  is  remov^ed  from 
the  bird,  two  tubes  lying 
along  the  ventral  aspect 
of  the  neck.  These  are 
the  esophagus  (1)  and  the 
windpipe  or  trachea  (2). 
In  the  region  where  the 
neck  joins  the  trunk 
there  is  a  sac-like  dilata- 
tion of  the  esophagus, 
the  crop  (3). 

Proceeding  backwards 
from  the  crop  the  ali- 
mentary tube  passes 
through  the  thoracic 
cavity  and  as  it  enters 
the  abdominal  cavity 
widens  out  into  the  /jto- 
ventriculus  (4),  or  glan- 
dular stomach.  This 
opens  directly  into  the 
gizzard  (5)  in  which  the 
mechanical  breaking  up 
and  grinding  of  the  food 
material  is  carried  on. 

After  leaving  the  giz- 
zard the  food  passes  into 
the  intestine.  The  first 
portion  of  the  intestine, 


The  Diagnosis  of  the  Diseases  of  Poultry  45 

called  the  duodenum  (6),  forms  a  U-shaped  loop.  It  consists 
of  a  left  or  proximal  and  a  right  or  distal  limb.  Between 
these  two  limbs  is  situated  an  important  digestive  gland, 
the  pancreas  (7).  Without  any  line  of  demarcation  the 
duodenum  is  continued  as  the  long,  small  intestine  (8)  back 
to  the  point  of  origin  of  two  out-pocketings  of  the  ali- 
mentary tract  called  the  ceca  (9).  The  point  of  origin  of 
these  organs  marks  the  separation  between  the  small  intes- 
tine lying  in  front  of  them,  and  the  large  intestine  or  rectum 
(10)  lying  behind  them.  The  rectum  opens  into  the  cloaca 
(11),  a  somewhat  dilated  chamber  which  opens  externally 
by  the  vent.  Into  the  cloaca  open  besides  the  rectum  the 
ducts  of  the  urinary  and  genital  systems  of  organs. 

On  the  ventral  side  of  the  abdominal  cavity  is  seen  the 
large  liver  (12),  consisting  of  a  large  right  lobe  and  a  smaller 
left  lobe.  Attached  by  a  fold  of  membrane  to  the  proven- 
triculus  is  seen  the  spleen  (13),  a  small,  ovoidal,  red  body. 
Just  in  front  of  the  liver  lies  the  heart  (14),  inclosed  in  a  thin 
membranous  sac,  the  pericardium.  The  lungs  (15)  are  light 
red  spongy  bodies  which  may  be  seen  by  turning  aside  the 
heart,  closely  attached  to  the  dorsal  body  wall  in  the  tho- 
racic region. 

Just  behind  the  lungs  is  seen  on  the  left  side  of  the  body 
in  the  female  the  ovary  (16).  Except  in  rare  cases,  the 
ovary  on  the  right  side  of  the  body  in  the  domestic  fowl 
degenerates  during  embryonic  life  and  only  the  left  ovary 
remains  to  produce  eggs.  It  is  made  up  of  a  number  of 
spherical  bodies  of  various  sizes  called  ovarian  eggs  or  oocytes. 

Behind  the  ovary  is  the  oviduct  (17),  which  in  a  laying 
hen  is  a  much  coiled  tube  with  thick  glandular  walls.  In 
this  tube  the  albumen  and  other  envelopes  of  the  egg  are 
manufactured.  At  the  anterior  end  of  the  oviduct  is  the 
infundibulum  (18)  or  funnel.  (For  further  description  of 
the  reproductive  organs  see  p.  245.) 


46  Disease.^  of  Poultry 

Above  and  behind  the  ovary  and  oviduct  lies  the  left 
kidney  (19),  a  dark  red  body  closely  attached  to  the  dorsal 
body  wall.  It  and  its  fellow  on  the  opposite  side,  the  right 
kidney,  consist  of  three  well  marked  lobes,  an  anterior, 
a  middle  and  a  posterior.  These  lobes  are  embedded  in  the 
cavities  which  are  made  by  the  pelvis  and  sacrum.  From 
each  kidney  a  tube,  the  ureter  (2),  leads  back  to  the  cloaca 
and  through  this  tube  the  waste  products  discharged  by  the 
kidney  are  carried  to  the  outside  of  the  body. 

The  above  account  covers  the  chief  visceral  organs. 
Any  one  wishing  to  go  further  into  the  study  of  the  anatomy 
of  the  domestic  fowl  will  do  well  to  consult  the  larger  hand- 
books of  vertebrate  comparative  anatomy. 


DIRECTIONS    FOR    MAKING    A    POST-MORTEM    EXAMINATION 

The  poultryman  about  to  undertake  making  autopsies 
on  his  birds  should  provide  himself  at  the  outstart  with 
certain  necessary  articles.  These  should  include  as  essen- 
tial requisites,  first,  a  good  sharp  knife  with  a  pointed  blade  ; 
second,  a  pair  of  bone  forceps  or  else  a  pair  of  very  heavy 
shears  with  short  blades ;  third,  a  pair  of  medium  size  dis- 
secting scissors,  and,  finally,  a  wooden  table  or  dissecting 
board  on  which  to  work. 

In  making  the  post-mortem  the  dead  bird  should  be 
laid  with  the  breast  uppermost  on  the  table  or  dissecting 
board.  The  wings  and  legs  should  be  spread  out.  A  con- 
venient way  in  which  to  hold  the  bird  is  to  drive  a  small 
shingle  nail  through  the  tip  of  each  wing  and  each  foot,  thus 
holding  the  body  in  the  desired  position.  Then  with  a 
sharp  knife  an  incision  should  be  made  through  the  skin 
in  the  general  form  of  the  letter  U.  The  ends  of  the  limbs 
of  the  U  should  be  just  behind  the  shoulder  joints.  The 
lower  dip  of  the  U  should  be  just  in  front  of  the  anus.     It 


The  Diagnosis  of  the  Diseases  of  Poultry  47 

will  not  be  necessary  to  remove  the  feathers  in  making  this 
incision.  They  may  be-parted  with  the  knife,  which  should 
be  a  heavy  and  sharp  one.  The  incision  should  be  carried 
through  skin  and  body  wall.  In  the  region  of  the  breast, 
where  the  muscles  are  thicker,  the  incision  should  be  made 
clear  through  to  the  bone.  The  bone  may  then  be  divided 
in  the  same  line  by  means  either  of  the  bone  forceps  or  heavy 
shears  already  mentioned.  An  incision  made  as  described 
will  free  the  whole  ventral  body  wall  except  at  the  anterior 
end.  To  free  it  at  the  anterior  end  it  is  necessary  to  use 
the  bone  forceps  and  cut  straight  across  the  anterior  end  of 
the  body  in  front  of  the  shoulders.  Then  the  whole  ven- 
tral body  wall  may  be  lifted  off  and  the  organs  exposed  in 
their  natural  position.  In  doing  this  one  should  be  care- 
ful not  to  injure  the  heart  or  any  other  organs. 

One  may  then  proceed  to  the  examination  of  the  dif- 
ferent organs  for  evidence  of  disease.  Taking  first  the  liver  ; 
one  should  note  whether  it  has  any  spots  or  is  discolored, 
or  whether  it  is  of  a  soft,  friable  consistency,  a  condition 
known  as  "punky"  liver.  The  healthy  liver  should  be  a 
rich  chocolate  brown  color,  free  of  spots  and  discolorations. 
There  may  of  course  be  post-mortem  discolorations  due 
to  escape  of  bile  or  other  causes,  but  these  may  be  easily 
recognized  as  such.  Spots  on  the  liver  may  be  of  several 
sorts,  either  small  or  large  nodules  of  whitish  substance 
studded  in  the  liver  tissue,  or  simply  areas  of  different  color 
from  the  rest  of  the  liver.  Again  there  may  be  all  over  the 
surface  of  the  liver  a  deposit  of  white  material,  which  indi- 
cates excess  urates  from  defective  kidney  function.  As  to 
consistency,  the  liver  should  be  firm  to  the  touch,  and  not 
easily  friable  or  "punky." 

The  heart  should  be  free  of  excessive  fat  and  without 
tubercles.  One  of  the  most  common  diseased  conditions 
of  the  heart  is  hypertrophy,  wherein  the  heart  is  larger  than 


48  Disca.fCfi  of  Poultry 

normal.  One  should  accustom  himself  to  recognize  the 
normal  size  of  the  heart  and  then  in  a  post-mortem  exami- 
nation he  can  tell  at  a  glance  whether  the  heart  is  unduly 
enlarged. 

The  lungs  should  be  examined  for  evidence  of  congestion, 
old  or  recent,  and  aspergillosis.  Tuberculosis  of  the  lungs 
is  relatively  rare  in  poultry.  In  the  majority  of  attacks  of 
tuberculosis  the  lungs  are  usually  among  the  last  organs  to 
be  affected. 

Crop  and  gizzard  are  opened  to  determine  whether  any- 
thing in  the  recently  ingested  food  has  been  causing  trouble. 
It  is  also  well  to  split  open  the  trachea  or  windpipe  to  see 
whether  any  foreign  bodies  are  present,  or  whether  there  is 
any  accumulation  of  cheesy  pus,  indicating  some  form  of 
roup,  particularly  the  diphtheritic.  Also,  of  course,  a  look- 
out should  be  kept  for  parasitic  worms  in  opening  any  of  the 
abdominal  organs. 

In  the  abdominal  region,  after  the  liver  has  been  removed 
or  turned  forward  out  of  the  way,  the  spleen  may  then  be 
seen.  This  is  a  small  dark  organ  which  is  usually  one  of 
the  first  to  be  attacked  in  a  case  of  tuberculosis.  Where 
this  disease  is  suspected,  careful  examination  of  the  spleen 
should  be  made  to  see  whether  any  small  white  nodules  or 
tubercles  are  present. 

The  intestines  should  be  examined  for  evidences  of  con- 
gestions, presence  of  parasites,  or  presence  of  tubercles. 

After  having  been  examined  the  intestines  may  be  re- 
moved and  thrown  away.  Then  there  will  be  exposed  the 
urinary  and  reproductive  organs.  In  many  cases  death  in 
hens  is  due  to  some  impairment  of  the  egg  producing  organs. 
One  should  look  first  for  tumors  on  the  ovary,  which  may 
generally  be  distinguished  as  dark  colored  bodies  attached  to 
the  ovary,  looking  very  much  like  a  yolk  in  process  of  for- 
mation which  has  gone  bad.     The  oviduct  should  be  exam- 


The  Diagnosis  of  the  Diseases  of  Poultry  49 

ined  for  evidence  of  rupture  of  its  walls,  or  the  presence  of 
concrements. 

The  kidneys  have  normally  a  dark  red  mottled  appear- 
ance. In  cases  of  disease  the  most  marked  change  to  be 
seen  is  one  of  color.  The  kidneys  may  thus  be  either  ex- 
tremely congested  and  much  deeper  color  than  the  normal, 
or,  on  the  other  hand,  they  may  be  pale  and  take  on  a 
yellowish  hue.  Again  they  may  be  covered  with  a  heavy 
white  deposit  of  urates. 

At  this  point  one  may  make  a  thorough  examination  of 
the  peritoneum  or  lining  membrane  of  the  body  cavity  to 
see  whether  or  not  this  is  diseased.  In  a  condition  of 
health  it  is  a  glistening,  thin,  transparent  membrane  which 
lines  the  whole  of  the  body  cavity  and  covers  the  viscera. 
In  cases  of  disease  or  abnormal  conditions  which  cause 
peritonitis,  it  becomes  a  thickened  whitish  or  yellowish  and 
opaque  membrane. 

If  anything  like  roup  or  any  other  disease  of  the  air  pas- 
sages is  suspected,  examination  should  be  made  of  the  nasal 
passages  in  the  head.  This  can  best  be  done  by  opening 
the  lower  jaw  and  then  with  a  sharp  knife  making  a  slit 
straight  back  from  the  corners  of  the  mouth  so  to  fold  the 
lower  jaw  back  on  the  throat  and  expose  the  larynx  and  upper 
end  of  the  trachea.  At  the  same  time  by  cutting  away  the 
roof  of  the  mouth  one  can  examine  the  nasal  passages  proper. 


THE    DIAGNOSTIC    VALUE    OF    CERTAIN    POST-MORTEM 
APPEARANCES 

In  the  table  which  follows  the  attempt  has  been  to  do  for 
the  post-mortem  diagnostic  signs  the  same  sort  of  thing 
as  was  done  in  an  earlier  section  for  the  external  signs  of 
disease.  There  are  listed  in  the  table  the  more  striking 
post-mortem  appearances  which  the  poultryman  is  likely 


50 


Diseases  of  Poultri/ 


to  meet,  together  with  an  indication  of  the  disease  which 
may  have  been  the  cause  of  each  appearance.  It  is  hoped 
that  this  table  may  prove  useful. 


Table  of  Post-mohtem  Appearances  which  may  be  op 
Some  Value  in  Differential  Diagnosis 

The  numbers  in  parentheses  denote  the  pages  to  be  consulted. 


Post-mortem  Appearance 

Disease  which  the  Appearance  named 
MAY  Indicate 

Blood,  clotted  in  vessels. 

Thrombosis  (185). 

Brain,  blood  clot  on. 

Apoplexy  (194). 

Bronchi,  filled  with  mucus. 

Pneumonia  (178). 

Ceca,  inflamed. 

Coccidiosis  (28.5) ,  Blackhead  (94). 

Ceca,  partially  filled  with  grayish 

Bacillary  white  diarrhea  (287). 

soft      material,      not      cheesy 

(chicks). 

Ceca,    thickened    and    distended 

Coccidiosis  (285),  Blackhead  (94). 

with  pasty  or  cheesy  mass. 

Gall  bladder,  distended. 

Jaundice  (94). 

Heart,     exudate     in     pericardial 

Fowl   plague    (112),  Pericarditis 

cavity. 

(182). 

Heart,     Uning     membrane     red- 

Endocarditis (183),  Myocarditis 

dened. 

(183). 

Heart,    punctiform    hemorrhages 

of. 
Intestine,  bearing  nodules. 

Cholera  (102),  Fowl  plague  (112). 

Tuberculosis  (115),  Tumors  (312). 

Intestines,  congested. 

Ptomaine  poisoning  (85). 

Intestines,  filled  with  mucus. 

Enteritis  (67). 

Intestines,  inflamed. 

Enteritis   (67),  Mercury  poison- 

ing (83),  Blackhead  (94). 

Intestines,  mucosa  bleeding. 

Cholera  (102). 

Kidneys,  bearing  cheesy  nodules. 

Tuberculosis  (115). 

Kidneys,  congested. 

Ptomaine  poisoning  (85). 

Kidneys,  enlarged. 

Diseases  of  the  kidneys  (199). 

Kidneys,  filled  with  whitish  crys- 

Mercury    poisoning     (83),     Dis- 

talUne deposit. 

eases  of  the  kidneys  (199). 

Kidneijs,  inflamed. 

Cholera  (102). 

Liver,  chalky  deposit  on. 

Gout  (199). 

The  Diagnosis  of  the  Diseases  of  Poultry 


51 


Post-mortem  Appearance 

Diseases  which  the  Appearance  named 
MAY  Indicate 

Liver,  congested. 

Ptomaine    poisoning     (85),    Dis- 

eases of  the  liver  (87),  Cholera 

(102),      Infectious      leukaemia 

(185). 

Liver,  enlarged. 

Enteritis    (67),    Diseases   of    the 

Uver    (87),    Infectious    leuka?- 

mia  (185). 

Liver,  greasy. 

Hypertrophy  of  hver  (90). 

Liver,   pale  with  streaks  of  red 

BaeiUary  white  diarrhea  (287). 

(chicks). 

Liver,  shrunken. 

Enteritis    (67),   Diseases   of   the 

hver  (87). 

Liver,  spotted  (or  marbled). 

Coccidiosis  (285),  Diseases  of  the 

hver  (87),  Blackhead  (94),  As- 

pergillosis (173),  Cholera  (102), 

Infectious  leukaemia  (185). 

Liver,  with  raised  nodules. 

Tuberculosis  (115). 

Lungs,  congested. 

Pneumonia  (178),  Congestion  of 

lungs  (177),  Cholera  (102). 

Lungs,  dark  color  and  soUd. 

Pneumonia  (178). 

Lungs,  with  cheesy  nodules. 

Tuberculosis  (115),   Aspergillosis 

(173). 

Lungs,       yellow       membranous 

Aspergillosis  (173). 

patches  in. 

Ovary,  with  discolored  tumorUke 

BaeiUary  white  diarrhea  (287). 

yolks. 

• 

Ovary,  without  yolks. 

Atrophy  of  ovary  (251). 

Oviduct,  inflamed. 

Diseases     of     the     reproductive 

organs  (245). 

Peritoneum,  covered  with  chalkj^ 

Gout  (199). 

deposit. 

Peritoneum,  covered  with  opaque 

Peritonitis  (77). 

exudate. 

Spleen,  enlarged. 

Enteritis  (67). 

S-pleen,  spotted. 

Enteritis  (67),  Tuberculosis  (115). 

Ureters,  yellow  and  distended. 

Cholera  (102). 

Windpipe,  yellow  dust  in. 

Air-sae  mite  (180). 

Windpipe,  worms  in, 

Gapes  (304). 

Windpipe,  yellow  patches  in. 

Aspergillosis  (173). 

CHAPTER  IV 

Poultry  Materia  Medica 

It  is  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  to  give  an  account  of  the 
drugs  and  remedies  which  the  poultryman  will  find  it  well  to 
be  supplied  with ;  directions  for  making  various  solutions ; 
tables  of  weights  and  measures  and  the  like. 

THE   MEDICINE    CHEST 

The  following  drugs  and  medicines  will  be  found  useful 
to  have  at  hand. 

Calomel  (Sub-chloride  of  mercury).  — This  drug  is  chiefly 
useful  for  its  effect  on  the  liver.  The  dosage  is  anything  up 
to  1  grain  at  a  time.  A  dose  of  calomel  should  be  followed 
in  the  course  of  two  hours  or  so  with  a  dose  of  castor  oil. 

Cayenne  Pepyer.  — This  is  an  excellent  digestive  and  liver 
stimulant  when  given  in  the  food  in  small  quantities.  It 
Is  also  useful  in  cases  of  colds.  In  this  case  the  pepper 
should  be  put  in  small  gelatine  capsules  (size  No.  4)  which 
may  be  obtained  from  any  druggist  and  a  filled  capsule 
then  pushed  far  enough  dow^n  the  esophagus  with  the  finger 
so  that  the  bird  will  swallow  it. 

Catechu.  —  Bradshaw  ^  says  that  this  "in  powder  or  tinc- 
ture form  in  combination  w^ith  powdered  chalk  is  a  good 
remedy  for  diarrhea.  The  average  dose  of  powdered 
catechu  is  from  2  to  5  grains  and  of  the  tincture  2  to  5  drops." 

1  Bradshaw,  O.,  "Poultry  Farming."     Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, N.  S.  Wales,  Farmers'  Bui.  No.  51,  p.  28,  1911. 
52 


Poultry  Materia  Medica 


53 


Castor  Oil.  —  Castor  oil  is  used  as  a  remedy  for  diarrhea 
and  as  an  intestinal  antiseptic.  It  may  also  be  used  in 
cases  of  crop-bound  fowls,  although  for  this  purpose  cotton 
seed  oil  will  be  found  to  be  quite  as  satisfactory  and  very 
much  cheaper. 

Epsom  Salts  (Magnesium  sulphate) .  —  This  is  on  the 
whole  the  most  useful  poultry  yard  drug.  It  is  indicated  in 
practically  all  cases  of  digestive  disturbance  and  colds, 
bowel  trouble,  etc.  The  standard  dose  for  an  adult  fowl 
is  from  |  to  1  teaspoonful. 

The  following  table  of  doses  of  Epsom  salts  for  young 
birds  has  been  worked  out  by  Gage  and  Opperman  ^ : 


Age  of  Bird 

Amount  per  Bird  in 
Grains 

How  Administered 

1  to  5  weeks        .     .     . 

10  grains 

In  feed 

5  to  10  weeks      .     .     . 

15  grains 

In  feed 

10  to  15  weeks    .     .     . 

20  grains 

In  feed 

15  weeks  to  6  months 

30  grains 

r  Two     teaspoonfuls 

6  months  to  1  year 

35  grains 

1       of  water  to  every 

1  year  and  over  .     .     . 

40-50  grains 

30,     40     or     50 
[      grains  of  salt. 

There  are  several  ways  of  administering  Epsom  salts. 
It  may  be  mixed  with  the  drinking  water,  or  a  solution  may 
be  made  with  warm  water  and  put  down  the  throat  of  the 
bird.  Probably,  however,  the  best  way  to  administer  a 
dose  to  a  large  flock  is  to  give  the  birds  no  food  whatever  on 
the  day  that  they  are  to  be  given  the  Epsom  salts  until  late 
in  the  afternoon.  Then  having  determined  the  amount  of 
salts  to  be  used  for  the  whole  pen  of  birds  at  the  rate  of 
from  I  to   1   teaspoonful    per   bird,   dissolve   this   amount 

^  Gage,  G.  E.,  and  Opperman,  C.  L.,  "A  Tapeworm  Disease  of 
Fowls."     Maryland  Agr.  Expt.  Stat.  Bulletin  139,  pp.  73-85,  1909. 


54  Diseases  of  Poultry 

in  water  and  use  this  solution  to  mix  up  a  wet  mash.  Any 
ordinary  dry  mash  mixture  of  bran,  meal  and  other  ground 
grain  may  be  used  for  the  purpose.  The  wet  mash  so  pre- 
pared should  be  divided  into  several  lots  and  put  in  differ- 
ent places  in  the  pen  so  that  all  the  birds  will  get  a  chance 
at  it.  This  method  insures  a  more  even  dosage  through  the 
flock  than  any  other  we  have  tried. 

Cotton-seed  Oil.  —  A  bland  oil  like  cotton-seed  oil  (salad 
oil)  is  useful  in  many  ways  about  the  poultry  yard.  In 
treating  prolapse  of  the  oviduct,  crop-bound  condition, 
and  in  other  cases,  the  oil  may  be  used  to  good  effect  as 
a  simple  lubricant.  Bradshaw  says  that  in  the  case  of  eye 
trouble  it  may  take  the  place  of  a  simple  lotion. 

Bichloride  of  Mercury,  1  to  1000  Solution.  —  To  make  this 
the  simplest  way  is  to  buy  of  the  druggist  bichloride  of  mer- 
cury tablets,  and  ask  him  to  label  the  box  to  show  how  much 
water  a  tablet  must  be  dissolved  in  to  make  a  1  to  1000  solu- 
tion. If  one  desires  to  mix  it  up  for  himself  ask  the  druggist 
to  make  up  some  1  gram  (15|  grain)  powders  of  bichloride  of 
mercury.  Dissolve  1  of  these  powders  in  a  quart  of  water. 
Put  in  enough  laundry  bluing  so  that  the  color  will  be  deep 
blue.  Then  the  solution,  which  is  highly  poisonous,  will 
never  be  mistaken  for  water. 

"1  to  1000  bichloride"  is  a  germicide  and  disinfectant  for 
external  use,  cleansing  wounds  and  the  like. 

Medicines  in  Tablet  Form.  — •  One  of  the  most  convenient 
forms  in  which  medicines  may  be  administered  is  in  tablets. 
Wholesale  and  mail-order  drug  houses  carry  extensive  lines 
of  these  graded  as  to  dosage.  They  may  be  administered 
to  poultry  very  easily  and  conveniently  by  holding  the  bird's 
mouth  open  with  one  hand  and  with  the  other  thrusting  the 
tablet  far  enough  back  in  the  throat  so  it  will  be  swallowed. 

The  following  list  of  tablets  will  be  found  useful  to  the 
poultryman.     They  fairly  well  cover  the  medicines  recom- 


Poultry  Materia  Medica  55 

mended  in  the  body  of  this  book.  Any  poultryman  may 
get  these  either  from  his  local  druggist,  or  if  he  cannot  fur- 
nish them,  they  can  be  purchased  by  mail  at  approximately 
the  prices  named. 

Approximate  Peicb 
PER  1000 

Sodium  salicylate,  3  gr %   .70 

(For  use  in  rheumatism.) 

Aconite  root,  1-10  gr 50 

(For  use  in  fevers.) 
Antiseptic     tablets,      Blue,     Corrosive 
sublimate,  7.3  gr. ;   Ammonium  chlo- 
ride, 7.7  gr 2.50 

(For  making  1  to  1000  bichloride 
solution.  One  tablet  dissolved  in  1 
pint  of  water  gives  a  solution  of  that 
strength.) 

Bismuth  subnitrate,  1  gr 80 

(For  intestinal  irritation.) 

Calomel,  I  gr 40 

Iron,  Quinine  and  Strychnine 80 

(For  use  as  a  tonic,  dose  3  per  day.) 

In  administering  tablets  in  the  manner  suggested  care 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  they  are  swallowed,  and  not 
coughed  up. 

An  Antiseptic  Ointment  for  Use  on  Cuts  and  Wounds  of 
All  Kinds 

The  following  ointment  may  be  made  up  by  the  poul- 
tryman and  will  be  found  useful  in  the  treatment  of  cuts, 
sores  and  wounds  of  all  kinds  of  poultry  and  stock  in  general. 

Oil  of  origanum 1  oz. 

Cresol f  oz. 


56  Diseases  of  Poultry 

Pine  tar 1  oz. 

Resin 1  oz. 

Clean  axle  grease 8  oz. 

Melt  the  axle  grease  and  resin  and  stir  in  the  other  ingredi- 
ents. Pour  off  in  a  tin  box  or  can  to  cool.  In  making  this, 
clean  axle  grease  from  a  freshly  opened  can  should  be  used. 

Tables  of  Apothecaries'  Weights  and  Measures  and  their 
Metric  Equivalents 


apothecaries 

weights 

Pound 

Ounces  (Troy)          Drams 

Scruples 

Grains         Grams 

1 

=       12                 =      96      = 

288 

= 

5760    =  373.23 

1                 =        8      = 

24 

= 

480    =    31.10 

1      = 

3 

= 

60    =      3.9 

1 

= 

20    =      1.30 

apothecaries' 

MEASURE 

Gallon 

Pints         Fluidounces             Fluidrams 

Minims         Cub.  cm. 

1 

=       8       =           128 

1024 

= 

61440  =  3785.00 

1      =           16         = 

128 

= 

7680  =     473.11 

1 

8 
1 

= 

480  =       29.57 
60  =        3.75 

COMMON    MEASURE 


A  teacup  is  estimated  to  hold  about  4  fluidounces,  one  gill. 
A  ivineglass  is  estimated  to  hold  about  2  fluidounces. 
A  tablespoon  is  estimated  to  hold  about  I  fluidounee. 
A  teaspoon  is  estimated  to  hold  about  1  fluidram. 


CHAPTER  V 

Diseases  of  the  Alimentary  Tract 

The  arrangement  of  the  digestive  organs  in  birds  differs 
from  that  in  other  domestic  animals  in  that  the  mastication 
of  the  food  does  not  take  place  in  the  mouth.  The  food  of 
birds,  consisting  mainly  of  grains  and  seeds,  is  swallowed 
whole  into  the  crop.  It  remains  here  until  it  is  completely 
softened  by  the  juices  secreted  by  this  organ.  The  food  then 
passes  into  the  stomach  (proventriculus),  where  it  is  mixed 
with  still  other  juices,  and  then  into  the  gizzard.  The 
muscular  walls  of  the  gizzard  grind  the  softened  food  against 
the  small  pebbles  (grit)  which  the  bird  picks  up,  until  it 
becomes  a  paste.  This  paste  is  then  passed  into  the  intes- 
tines and  mixed  with  the  secretions  from  the  liver,  pancreas 
and  the  intestines  themselves.  The  nutritive  elements  of 
the  food  are  transferred  through  the  intestinal  walls,  by 
means  of  the  activity  of  the  cells  composing  these  walls, 
into  the  blood  and  are  carried  to  various  parts  of  the  animal 
to  be  used  in  building  up  the  tissues. 

In  the  wild  state  birds  are  forced  to  hunt  for  their  own  food. 
They  go  about  gathering  in  a  few  seeds  here  and  there  but 
probably  at  no  time  is  the  crop  overloaded.  Under  condi- 
tions of  domestication  birds  are  fed  only  once  or  twice  a 
day  and  thus  the  crop  is  often  gorged  with  a  day's  supply 
of  food.  Further  the  lack  of  sufficient  grit,  lack  of  exercise 
and  the  feeding  of  rich,  soft  mashes  cause  the  birds  to  be 
57 


58  Diseases  of  Puidtry 

predisposed  towards  indigestion.  Under  these  conditions 
poultry  are  subject  to  a  large  number  of  disorders  of  the 
digestive  system. 

DISEASES   OF  THE   CROP 

Impacted  Crop  (Crop  Bound) 

In  general  two  immediate  causes  may  be  given  for  birds 
becoming  crop  bound.  (1)  The  thin  muscular  walls  may 
be  paralyzed  either  through  over-distention  with  dry  grain 
or  through  some  disease,  as  cholera  and  diphtheria.  (2) 
The  opening  into  the  lower  portion  of  the  esophagus  may 
become  clogged  by  long  straws,  feathers  or  other  substances. 
In  either  case  the  crop  fails  to  empty  itself  while  the  bird 
continues  to  eat  until  the  crop  is  greatly  distended  and 
packed  solid. 

Impacted  crop  is  a  common  disease  of  poultry.  A  large 
number  of  things  have  been  assigned  as  a  cause  for  this 
trouble.  It  is  probable  that  the  real  cause  lies  in  low  vitality 
due  to  improper  feeding  and  indigestion.  Every  poultry- 
man  knows  that  very  often  fowls  will  eat  large  quantities 
of  hay,  straw,  strings,  feathers,  etc.,  without  showing  the 
least  inconvenience.  If  the  digestive  organs  are  in  the  proper 
health  and  tone  they  will  usually  take  care  of  any  overload- 
ing of  the  crop.  It  is  only  when  the  tone  of  the  digestive 
system  has  been  lowered  by  improper  feeding,  housing  or 
by  some  disease  that  the  crop  fails  to  perform  its  usual 
function.  Occasionally  a  case  of  impaction  may  properly 
be  attributed  to  overloading  the  crop  with  indigestible 
matter.  Such  cases  will  occur  only  rarely  and  sporadically. 
If  many  crop  bound  birds  appear  in  a  flock  it  may  be  taken 
as  certain  that  something  more  fundamental  is  the  cause. 

Symptoms.  —  The  first  symptom  is  a  loss  of  appetite  or 
an  effort  of  the  bird  to  swallow  without  being  able  to  do  so. 


Diseases  of  the  Alimentary   Tract  59 

The  crop  is  seen  to  be  very  large  and  much  distended  with 
contents  which  are  more  or  less  firmly  packed  together.  If 
permitted  to  continue,  the  condition  becomes  aggravated, 
the  breathing  difficult,  and  death  may  result. 

Treatment.  —  If  a  large  number  of  crop  bound  birds  occur 
in  a  flock,  it  should  be  taken  as  a  sign  that  something  is 
wrong  in  the  management.  Measures  should  be  taken  to 
correct  errors  in  feeding  and  thus  give  the  birds  a  more  vigor- 
ous digestion.  In  such  epidemics  other  evidences  of  indiges- 
tion are  usually  present  and  the  particular  treatment  of  the 
flock  will  depend  largely  on  these  other  symptoms.  In 
general  the  birds  should  not  be  fed  too  much  at  any  one  time 
and  they  should  be  encouraged  to  take  as  much  exercise  as 
possible,  and  should  have  plenty  of  green  food. 

When  a  crop  bound  bird  is  found  it  must  be  treated  indi- 
vidually. Treatment  in  such  individual  cases  is  quite  often 
successful.  The  profitableness  of  such  treatment  must  be 
decided  by  every  poultryman  for  himself.  If  the  crop  bound 
condition  is  discovered  and  treated  at  the  beginning  of  the 
trouble  the  bird  will  usually  recover  quickly  and  may  make 
a  profitable  fowl.  On  the  other  hand  if  the  condition  has 
become  chronic  the  vitality  of  the  bird  is  greatly  lowered. 
In  this  latter  case  it  may  recover  but  it  w411  be  a  long  time 
before  it  will  repay  the  owner  for  his  trouble  and  feed. 

If  swelled  grain  is  the  cause  of  the  impaction  the  bird  may 
often  be  successfully  treated  without  an  operation.  In 
this  case  first  give  the  bird  a  tablespoonful  of  castor  oil. 
After  allowing  this  a  little  time  to  work  into  the  crop  begin 
to  knead  the  hard  mass.  After  this  mass  has  been  softened 
hold  the  bird  with  head  downward  and  attempt  to  work  the 
grain  out  through  the  mouth.  If  unsuccessful  in  this  or  if 
the  impaction  is  due  to  clogging  with  straw  or  other  material 
it  will  be  necessary  to  open  the  crop. 

The  operation  for  impacted  crop  is  comparatively  simple. 


60  Diseases  of  Poultry 

It  will  be  easier  if  some  person  can  hold  the  bird  while  an- 
other performs  the  operation.  If  assistance  is  not  at  hand 
the  bird  may  be  tied,  back  down,  to  a  board  or  table.  The 
operation  should  be  done  in  a  place  as  free  as  possible  from 
dust  and  dirt.  First,  pluck  out  a  few  feathers  in  the  median 
line  of  the  crop.  The  feathers  around  the  edge  of  the  field 
of  operation  may  be  dampened  to  keep  dust  from  them  out 
of  the  wound.  With  a  sharp,  clean  knife  cut  through  the 
skin  over  the  middle  of  the  crop.  This  cut  should  be  about 
1  inch  long.  Then  make  an  incision  about  f  of  an  inch 
long  through  the  wall  of  the  crop.  The  distention  of  the 
crop  will  cause  the  opening  to  gape,  and  the  mass  will  be  in 
plain  sight.  With  a  buttonhook,  blunt  pointed  scissors, 
tweezers,  or  similar  tools,  take  out  the  contents  of  the  crop. 
This  done,  run  the  finger  into  the  crop  and  make  sure  that 
there  is  nothing  remaining  to  obstruct  the  outlet  of  the 
organ.  After  this  is  done  thoroughly  wash  out  the  empty 
crop  with  clean- warm  (108°  to  110°  F.)  water.  The  opening 
in  the  wall  of  the  crop  should  be  closed  with  3  or  4  stitches, 
making  each  stitch  by  itself  and  tying  a  knot  that  will  not 
slip.  Then  do  the  same  thing  to  the  cut  in  the  skin.  For 
stitches  use  white  silk  or  (if  nothing  better  can  be  obtained) 
common  cotton  thread,  number  60. 

The  above  operation  is  not  a  difficult  one  and  is  usually 
successful.  Care  should  be  exercised  to  have  the  hands  and 
instruments  thoroughly  clean.  In  sewing  up  the  wound 
care  should  be  taken  that  dirt,  ends  of  feathers,  etc.,  are  not 
drawn  into  the  wound.  Chickens  are  quite  resistant  to 
infection  with  ordinary  bacteria,  but  the  results  will  be 
uniformly  better  if  care  is  taken  to  exclude  all  chance  for 
infection.  The  edges  of  the  skin  should  be  well  greased 
with  vaseline.  For  the  first  day  or  two  it  is  well  to  feed 
the  bird  only  milk  or  raw  eggs  beaten  together. 


Diseases  of  the  Alimentary   Tract  61 

Inflammation  of  the  Crop 

Inflammation  or  catarrh  of  the  crop  usually  accompanies 
more  or  less  general  disturbances  of  the  digestive  system. 
As  a  result  of  the  irritated  condition  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane the  functions  of  the  crop  are  disturbed  or  arrested. 
This  trouble,  when  not  due  to  a  generally  run-down  condi- 
tion and  lack  of  tone,  is  usually  caused  by  eating  moldy  or 
putrid  food  and,  especially,  irritating  mineral  poisons. 
Unslaked  lime,  paint  skins,  and  common  salt  are  some  of 
the  more  frequent  causes.  Worms  in  the  crop  may  also 
cause  an  inflammatory  condition.  It  also  occurs  as  a 
complication  with  diphtheria,  cholera,  etc.  Inflammation 
of  the  crop  is  usually  accompanied  by  more  or  less  severe 
inflammation  of  the  other  regions  of  the  digestive  tract. 
The  cause  which  irritates  the  crop  also  disturbs  the  mucous 
linings  of  the  other  regions. 

Diagnosis. — The  most  prominent  symptom  is  distention 
of  the  crop,  and  on  examination  the  swelling  is  found  to  be 
soft  and  due  to  accumulated  liquid  or  gas,  mixed  with  more 
or  less  food.  The  birds  are  dull,  indisposed  to  move,  and 
there  is  belching  of  gas,  loss  of  appetite  and  weakness. 
Pressure  upon  the  crop  causes  the  expulsion  through  the 
mouth  of  liquid  and  gas  having  an  offensive  odor,  due  to 
fermentation. 

Treatment.  —  The  first  step  in  the  treatment  of  this  dis- 
ease is  to  empty  the  crop  as  completely  as  possible.  This 
can  be  done  by  holding  the  bird  head  downward  and  care- 
fully pressing  and  kneading  the  crop.  After  most  of  the 
contents  have  been  expelled  in  this  way  give  the  bird  several 
spoonfuls  of  lukewarm  water  and  then  empty  the  crop  as 
before.  Give  a  slight  purgative  such  as  a  small  teaspoonful 
of  castor  oil.  The  bird  should  be  kept  without  food  for  12 
to  20  hours  and  then  fed  sparingly  on  soft,  easily  digested 


62  Diseases  of  Poultri/ 

material.  Two  grains  of  subnitrate  of  bismuth  and  | 
grain  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  in  a  teaspoonful  of  water  will 
relieve  the  irritation  and  correct  the  acidity.  Salicylic 
acid,  1  grain  to  an  ounce  of  water,  is  also  recommended. 
The  dose  is  2  to  3  teaspoonfuls.  The  feeding  of  mucilagi- 
nous fluids  such  as  barley-water,  thin  solution  of  gum,  etc.,  is 
recommended.  If  the  inflammation  is  due  to  eating  poisons 
antidotes  as  given  farther  on  (Chapter  VI)  should  be  used. 
If  inflammation  of  the  crop  is  at  all  general  throughout 
the  flock  an  effort  should  be  made  to  remove  the  cause.  It 
is  well  to  change  the  feed  and  give  the  birds  more  exercise. 
The  addition  of  fine  charcoal  (small  chick  size)  to  the  mash 
will  often  be  of  service,  as  the  birds  eat  more  of  it  in  this 
way  than  when  the  charcoal  is  in  a  box  by  itself. 

Enlarged  Crop 

One  sometimes  finds  a  bird  with  a  very  much  enlarged, 
pendulous  crop.  This  loose  baggy  condition  is  usually 
permanent,  but  in  the  majority  of  cases  it  does  not  cause  the 
bird  any  serious  inconvenience. 

The  cause  of  this  enlarged  or  slack  crop  is  usually  said 
to  be  overfeeding  at  irregular  intervals.  It  is  probable 
that  overloading  of  the  crop  alone  is  not  the  only  cause. 
Overloading  accompanied  by  indigestion  or  some  general 
disturbance  of  the  digestive  organs  may  result  in  a  sort  of 
paralysis  of  the  crop  muscles.  It  is  not  improbable  that 
many  birds  showing  enlarged  crop  have  suffered  with  a 
mild  case  of  impaction  and  have  finally  recovered  without 
assistance. 

An  enlarged  crop  and  an  enlarged  "baggy"  abdomen  are 
frequently  associated  in  the  same  bird.  These  are  usually 
said  to  be  due  to  too  heavy  feeding  without  sufficient  inter- 
vals between  meals  and  without  sufficient  exercise. 


Diseases  of  the  Alimentary   Tract  63 

Treatment. — As  stated  above,  a  "baggy"  crop  often 
gives  little  or  no  apparent  inconvenience  to  the  fowl.  In 
the  case  of  a  very  valuable  bird  it  might  be  worth  while  to 
operate.  It  is  said  that  this  defect  can  be  remedied  by 
cutting  out  of  the  enlarged  portion  of  the  crop  a  diamond 
or  oval  shaped  piece  of  tissue  about  2  inches  long  and  1 
inch  wide.  The  edges  should  be  sewed  together  and  treated 
as  directed  for  impacted  crop  (cf.  p.  ^0).  The  general 
surgical  methods  described  in  the  chapter  on  Poultry  Sur- 
gery (Chapter  XXI)  should  be  followed. 

Inflated  Crop 

Occasionally  birds  both  old  and  young  are  found  with 
enormously  inflated  crops.  This  condition  is  due  to  the 
pressure  of  gas  forming  bacteria.  It  is  probably  caused  by 
eating  decayed  food.  The  remedy  for  this  trouble  is  first 
to  remove  the  cause  and  then  give  a  mild  intestinal  antisep- 
tic in  the  drinking  water,  such  as  1  to  10,000  bichloride  of 
mercury  or  1  to  500  carbolic  acid. 

DISEASES   OF  THE   STOMACH    (PROVENTRICULUS) 

Inflammation  of  the  Stomach  —  Gastritis 

The  stomach  or  proventriculus  in  fowls  is  a  rather  small 
organ.  It  is  a  thick,  glandular  walled  section  of  the  alimen- 
tary canal  lying  between  the  crop  and  the  gizzard.  Inflam- 
mation of  this  organ  is  usually  associated  with  a  similar  dis- 
turbance of  the  crop.  In  a  few  cases  there  appears  to  be 
inflammation  of  the  stomach  alone.  Diagnosis  in  this  case 
is  very  difficult. 

The  cause  of  gastritis  is  usually  regarded  as  the  same  as 
that  of  inflammation  of  the  crop  (cf.  p.  61). 


64  Diseases  of  Poultry 

Diagnosis.  —  In  general  the  symptoms  are  very  similar  to 
those  in  cases  of  inflammation  of  the  crop  (see  p.  61).  The 
birds  present  the  general  appearance  of  being  sick,  viz., 
loss  of  appetite,  indisposition  to  move  and  roughness  of 
plumage.  Constipation  quite  often  accompanies  gastritis. 
However,  if  the  inflammation  extends  to  the  intestines  there 
may  be  diarrhea. 

Treatment.  —  The  most  important  thing  in  the  treatment 
of  this  kind  of  a  disease  is  to  ascertain  and  remove  the  cause. 
Medical  treatment  without  removal  of  the  cause  will  do  but 
little  good.  The  kind  of  food  which  the  birds  have  access 
to  should  be  examined  and  any  changes  made  which  might 
remove  the  cause  of  the  trouble.  The  addition  of  fine 
(chick  size)  charcoal  to  the  mash  and  the  generous  use  of 
good  green  food  are  recommended.  For  a  time  the  birds 
should  be  fed  often,  giving  only  a  small  quantity  at  a  time. 
A  good  cooked  food  is  often  more  easily  digested  and  will 
aid  in  stopping  the  irritation.  Give  the  birds  barlej^  water 
or  milk  to  drink,  or  add  20  grains  of  bicarbonate  of  soda 
(baking  soda)  to  a  quart  of  drinking  water.  Rice  water 
to  which  4  grain  of  arsenite  of  copper  to  each  quart  has  been 
added  is  also  recommended.  In  severe  cases  give  2  grains 
of  subnitrate  of  bismuth  .3  times  a  day  in  a  teaspoonful  of 
water.  Counteract  constipation  with  Epsom  salts  (20 
grains)  or  castor  oil  (one  teaspoonful)  once  a  day  as  long 
as  may  be  necessary. 

DISEASES    OF   THE    INTESTINES 

Simple  Diarrhea 

In  many  fowls  a  condition  of  mild  diarrhea  is  chronic 
throughout  the  lifetime  of  the  bird.  Again  birds  often 
acquire  a  slight  diarrhea  which  will  last  for  a  longer  or 


Diseases  of  the  Alimentary   Tract  65 

shorter  time,  but  never  becoming  severe.  In  either  of  these 
cases  the  bird  shows  no  symptoms  of  disease  other  than  the 
watery  droppings.  No  doubt  such  attacks  are  in  some  de- 
gree detrimental  to  the  best  health  of  the  bird.  In  most 
cases  of  this  simple  diarrhea  the  bird  will  recover  without 
any  treatment.  Nevertheless  the  careful  poultryman  will 
watch  his  dropping  boards  for  signs  of  "looseness."  When 
such  are  found  in  any  quantity  the  methods  of  feeding  and 
housing  should  be  carefully  examined  to  see  if  the  cause  does 
not  lie  in  them. 

The  normal  droppings  of  a  fowl  are  almost  dry  and  retain 
the  shape  in  which  they  are  voided.  They  are  easily  re- 
moved from  the  dropping  board  and  leave  little  or  no  stain. 
About  i  of  the  normal  dropping  consists  of  a  whitish  sub- 
stance. This  is  the  uric  acid  and  urates  excreted  by  the 
kidneys  and  removed  from  the  cloaca  along  with  the  feces. 

One  not  infrequently  finds  droppings  which  are  more 
watery  than  the  normal.  These  have  a  tendency  to  stain 
the  dropping  boards  and  do  not  retain  the  shape  in  which 
they  are  voided.  This  condition  is  best  described  as  "loose- 
ness" and  is  quite  different  from  true  diarrhea.  Looseness 
is  not  accompanied  by  offensive  odors.  Looseness  of  the 
bowels  may  be  caused  by  a  large  number  of  things,  such  as  a 
slight  change  of  food,  an  additional  amount  or  a  new  kind  of 
green  food,  etc.  Some  individual  birds  appear  to  void  loose, 
slightly  watery  droppings  throughout  life.  Such  individual 
differences  are  not  uncommon  among  other  animals. 

Looseness  of  the  bowels  is  a  condition  which  need  cause 
no  alarm,  but  when  droppings  are  found  which  are  sticky 
or  liquid  in  consistency  and  have  a  yellow  brown  or  greenish 
color  accompanied  by  an  offensive  odor  it  is  time  to  look 
after  the  cause.  The  evacuations  described  above  indicate 
some  form  of  true  diarrhea.  Very  often  the  watery  evacua- 
tions contain  mucus  and  in  the  more  severe  cases  small  clots 


66  Diseases  of  Poultry 

of  blood.  A  true  diarrhea  is  nearly  always  shown  by  the 
soiling  of  the  bird's  feathers. 

Diarrhea  may  result  simply  from  an  upsetting  of  the 
digestive  organs  due  to  improper  feeding  or  it  may  be  a 
symptom  of  some  more  serious  disease.  Simple  diarrhea 
may  arise  from  the  presence  of  indigestible  matter  in  the 
alimentary  canal,  it  may  be  due  to  exposure  to  heavy  rains 
or  to  drafts  in  the  roosting  house.  In  the  latter  cases  a 
cold  develops  which  affects  the  bowels  rather  than  the  head 
and  lungs.  Diarrhea  from  colds  occurs  much  more  fre- 
quently than  is  generally  supposed.  This  form  of  diarrhea 
can  often  be  recognized  by  the  greater  amount  of  frothy 
mucus  in  the  excrement.  Young  stock  are  much  more  sus- 
ceptible to  diarrhea  from  colds  than  are  adult  birds. 

Among  other  common  causes  of  simple  diarrhea  may  be 
mentioned  soured  or  decomposing  food,  too  much  green 
food  at  irregular  times,  too  free  use  of  animal  food,  allowing 
the  birds  access  to  water  which  has  become  soiled  Avith  ex- 
crement and  allowed  to  stand  in  the  hot  sun  until  about 
putrid.  Whatever  may  be  the  inducing  factor  the  imme- 
diate cause  is  excessive  bacterial  fermentation  in  the  alimen- 
tary canal. 

Treatment.  —  Simple  diarrhea  will  usually  require  no 
treatment  other  than  removing  the  original  cause.  This 
latter  is  by  far  the  more  important  thing  to  be  done.  If 
neglected,  the  condition  may  become  chronic  and  may  result 
in  more  serious  disturbances  of  the  alimentary  system.  It 
is  often  beneficial  to  replace  part  of  the  bran  in  the  mash 
with  middlings  or  low  grade  flour.  Where  in  addition  medi- 
cal treatment  seems  desirable  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to 
remove  the  fermenting  material  from  the  intestinal  canal. 
This  can  be  done  with  Epsom  salts,  using  a  small  half  tea- 
spoonful  to  each  bird.  This  should  be  dissolved  in  water 
and  used  to  mix  the  mash.     If  more  convenient,  a  teaspoon- 


Diseases  of  the  Alimentari/   Tract  67 

fill  of  castor  oil  may  be  given  each  bird.  If  the  diarrhea 
is  persistent,  3  to  6  drops  of  chlorodyne  is  said  to  be  an 
unfailing  cure. 

Enteritis  —  Dysentery 

For  practical  purposes  we  may  associate  most  of  the  severer 
forms  of  diarrhea  with  the  above  names.  Simple  diarrhea 
was  defined  as  either  a  temporary  or  chronic  affection  of  the 
intestines  from  which  the  bird  appeared  to  suffer  but  little. 
Practically  its  only  symptom  is  the  watery  or  discolored 
discharge.  Under  the  names  of  enteritis,  dysentery  or 
severe  diarrhea  there  are  listed  several  of  the  more  serious 
infections  of  the  intestines.  From  the  medical  standpoint 
enteritis  is  the  name  given  to  affections  of  the  small  intes- 
tines, while  dysentery  is  applied  to  the  disease  in  the  large 
intestine.  The  latter  is  usually  accompanied  by  mucous 
and  bloody  discharges.  In  the  diseases  of  poultry,  how- 
ever, it  is  hardly  necessary  for  any  one  other  than  a  patholo- 
gist to  distinguish  between  these  different  forms. 

Etiology.  —  A  variety  of  causes  are  responsible  for  these 
more  acute  forms  of  intestinal  trouble.  It  may  be  a  bacterial 
infection  coming  from  filthy  conditions.  Foul  drinking 
water,  putrid  meat  or  decaying  food  of  any  sort  may  be  pre- 
disposing causes.  Toxic  enteritis  or  poisoning  is  caused  by 
the  birds  eating  such  things  as  paint  skins,  lye,  unslaked 
lime,  salt,  ergot  of  rye,  arsenic  and  copper  (in  spraying 
mixtures)  (cf.  p.  81).  Further  simple  diarrhea  may  develop 
into  the  more  acute  form.  This  latter  is  due  to  improper 
food,  w^ater  or  housing,  and  is  probably  closely  associated 
with  bacterial  enteritis.  Various  intestinal  parasites  may 
cause  severe  diarrhea. 

Diagnosis.  —  It  is  often  very  difficult  to  distinguish 
between  the  different  infections  of  the  intestines  in  the  living 
birds.     In  all  these  cases  the  birds  are  inactive  and  appear 


68  Diseases  of  Poidtry 

sleepy.  The  comb  is  often  pale  and  bleached  in  the  earlier 
stages  but  becomes  dark  purplish  red  later.  Usually  the 
birds  will  not  eat,  but  occasionally  they  show  an  abnormal 
appetite.  There  is  always  a  marked  diarrhea  which  may 
vary  in  color  from  whitish  to  greenish  brown  or  red.  In 
the  more  severe  cases  blood  clots  are  found.  These  differ- 
ences in  the  appearance  of  the  discharges  indicate  to  some 
extent  which  portions  of  the  alimentary  tract  are  involved 
in  the  disease.  In  the  majority  of  cases  the  birds  will  be 
sick  for  many  days  or  weeks  before  death  takes  place. 
Post-mortem  examination  shows  usually  an  enlarged  liver 
and  spleen.  If  the  bird  has  been  sick  for  a  long  time  the 
liver  may  appear  shrunken.  The  intestines  are  full  of  mucus 
and  inflamed. 

Treatment.  —  If  possible  the  cause  of  the  trouble  should 
be  ascertained  and  removed.  This  is  by  all  means  the  first 
and  most  important  step  to  take.  It  is  useless  to  spend 
valuable  time  in  doctoring  sick  birds  while  the  conditions 
which  gave  rise  to  the  trouble  are  still  present.  In  bacterial 
enteritis  sick  birds  should  be  removed  from  the  flock  as  soon 
as  noticed.  Houses  and  runs  should  be  cleaned  up  and 
disinfected.  Drinking  vessels  and  food  troughs  should  be 
scalded  daily.  Potassium  permanganate  should  be  used  in 
the  drinking  water  (cf.  p.  25).  Mix  powdered  charcoal  with 
the  mash.  Feed  less  bran  and  more  middlings  in  the  mash. 
Do  not  feed  too  heavily. 

After  attending  to  the  above  hygienic  measures  the  birds 
should  be  given  a  good  physic.  A  teaspoonful  of  Epsom 
salts  to  each  fowl,  dissolved  in  water  and  mixed  in  the  mash, 
is  the  most  convenient  way  of  treating  a  large  number  of 
birds. 

For  medical  treatment  the  following  may  be  recommended  : 
Subnitrate  of  bismuth,  3  grains;  powdered  cinnamon  or 
cloves,  1  grain;   powdered  willow  charcoal,  3  grains.     Give 


Diseases  of  the  Alimentary   Tract  69 

twice  a  day  mixed  with  food  or  made  into  pills  with  flour 
and  water. 

Subnitrate  of  bismuth,  3  grains ;  bicarbonate  of  soda,  1 
grain;  powdered  cinchona  bark,  2  grains;  mix  and  give  3 
times  a  day  in  a  paste  made  with  wheat  flour.  When  di- 
arrhea is  arrested,  bismuth  and  soda  are  no  longer  needed. 

It  is  often  worth  while  to  give  a  good  tonic  or  condition 
powder  to  aid  the  birds  in  getting  their  digestive  organs  in 
order  again.  The  following  tonic  is  recommended  by 
Salmon  :  Powdered  fennel,  anise,  coriander,  and  cinchona  — 
each  30  grains ;  powdered  gentian  and  ginger  each  1  dram, 
powdered  sulphate  of  iron,  15  grains.  Mix  and  give  in  the 
feed  so  that  each  fowl  will  get  2  to  14  grains  twice  a  day. 
(For  another  tonic  see  p.  71.) 

Constipation 

Constipation  occurs  in  adult  fowls  far  less  often  than 
diarrhea.  It  frequently  passes  unnoticed  unless  very 
severe.  This  trouble  is  much  more  common  in  young  stock 
than  in  grown  birds.  In  adult  fowls  it  often  occurs  in  con- 
nection with  indigestion,  gastritis,  or  peritonitis.  Among 
the  specific  causes  of  constipation  lack  of  exercise  and  lack 
of  green  food  are  probably  the  most  important.  Occasion- 
ally intestinal  worms  will  accumulate  until  they  block  the 
intestine.  Sometimes  following  a  diarrhea  the  vent  will 
become  obstructed  with  dried  evacuation.  This  is  partic- 
ularly apt  to  occur  in  young  birds  which  do  not  roost.  It 
is  one  of  the  symptoms  of  white  diarrhea. 

The  symptoms  of  constipation  are  painful  and  ineffective 
efforts  to  evacuate  the  bowels.  In  the  worst  cases  the  vent 
becomes  completely  plugged  with  dry,  hard  feces.  The 
birds  appear  dull,  listless  and  without  appetite. 

Treatment.  —  When  the  vent  is  plugged  with  dried  feces 


70  Diseases  of  Poiilfri/ 

the  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  remove  this.  This  can  usually 
be  done  by  soaking  the  mass  with  warm  soapsuds.  As  soon 
as  this  is  loosened  a  little  the  feathers  can  be  clipped  and  the 
entire  mass  removed.  If  the  case  is  of  long  standing  the 
cloaca  may  also  be  filled  with  hard  excrement.  This  can 
sometimes  be  softened  by  injecting  warm  soapsuds  or  a 
little  olive  or  sweet  oil.  In  all  cases  a  purgative  should  be 
given  such  as  castor  oil,  Epsom  salts  or  calomel. 

Indigestion 

Birds  frequently  suffer  from  disorders  of  the  digestive 
system  which  are  not  easily  classified  under  any  of  the 
diseases  so  far  treated.  Simple  indigestion  or  dyspepsia 
most  frequently  results  from  overfeeding,  and  the  feeding  of 
ground  grains  and  meat  without  sufficient  green  food  are 
some  of  the  causes  usually  given. 

Symptoms.  —  The  birds  are  dull  and  listless.  They  are 
inclined  to  sit  on  the  roosts,  and  usually  have  but  little 
appetite.  Occasionally  birds  suffering  from  indigestion  have 
an  abnormal  appetite  and  will  eat  ravenously  quantities 
of  foods  which  furnish  but  little  nourishment,  e.g.,  grit. 
Indigestion  is  often  accompanied  by  either  constipation  or 
diarrhea.  In  the  latter  case  the  symptoms  are  similar  to 
those  described  under  simple  diarrhea  (p.  G4). 

Treatment.  —  In  treating  indigestion  it  is  important  to 
observe  the  general  rules  of  hygiene  (cf.  Chapter  II).  The 
house  should  be  clean  and  as  free  from  dust  as  possible. 
Sunshine  should  be  able  to  reach  every  corner  of  the  pens. 
The  water  dishes  should  be  kept  thoroughly  clean  and  the 
supply  of  water  should  be  kept  pure  and  fresh.  Use  potas- 
sium permanganate  in  the  drinking  water  as  directed  on 
p.  25.  I^se  well  balanced  rations  and  feed  at  regular 
hours.     Put   fine   (chick  size)  charcoal   into   the   mash  in 


Diseases  of  the  Alimentary   Tract  71 

considerable  quantity.  Enough  should  be  used  to  make 
the  mash  decidedly  black.  This  is  a  very  important  meas- 
ure for  the  treatment  of  indigestion.  Give  the  birds  plenty 
of  exercise.  A  small  amount  of  a  good  stock  tonic  may 
help  to  bring  the  birds  back  into  proper  vigor.  The  follow- 
ing formula  has  frequently  been  used  with  good  success. 

Pulverized  Gentian 1  lb. 

Pulverized  Ginger |  lb. 

Pulverized  Saltpeter |  lb. 

Pulverized  Iron  Sulphate ^  lb. 

These  substances  can  be  procured  from  any  drug  store  and 
mixed  by  the  poultry  man.  Use  2  to  3  tablespoonfuls  of  the 
tonic  to  10  quarts  of  dry  mash. 

Recovery  from  indigestion  may  also  be  hastened  by  the 
following  treatment.  For  the  first  week  after  the  trouble 
has  been  discovered  add  one  teaspoonful  of  Epsom  salts 
to  each  quart  of  drinking  water.  Follow  this  for  two  weeks 
with  I  grain  of  strychnine  to  each  quart  of  drinking  water. 

Coccidiosis 

This  disease  is  produced  by  small  protozoan  parasites 
which  attack  various  regions  of  the  intestinal  tract.  There 
are  a  large  number  of  different  species  of  "coccidia"  which 
frequently  attack  birds  and  the  smaller  mammals,  such  as 
rabbits,  rats,  and  mice.  They  are  very  destructive  to  young 
birds  and  are  said  by  some  investigators  to  be  the  cause  of 
one  form  of  white  diarrhea  in  young  chickens  (see  Chapter 

xvni). 

Many  different  species  of  birds  are  attacked  by  coccidiosis. 
Pigeons  are  particularly  liable  to  the  disease,  and  are  fre- 
quently responsible  for  the  outbreaks  in  the  poultry  yards. 
The  transmission  of  the  contagion  from  diseased  to  healthy 


72  Diseases  of  Poultry 

birds  occurs  by  contamination  of  the  food,  water,  gravel, 
and  other  substances  taken  into  the  digestive  organs.  The 
coccidia  multiply  with  great  rapidity  in  the  intestines  of 
diseased  birds,  and  enormous  numbers  are  discharged  with 
the  droppings  and  are  carried  on  the  birds'  feet  to  the  feed 
troughs  and  drinking  fountains  unless  these  are  well  pro- 
tected and  of  such  form  that  they  cannot  be  reached  by  the 
feet.  Under  any  circumstances  they  are  spread  over  the 
floor  of  the  houses  and  the  surface  of  the  runs,  and  many  will 
be  picked  up  with  gravel,  grain,  and  other  substances.  The 
germs  are  found  in  the  part  of  the  small  intestine  nearest 
to  the  gizzard,  where  they  cause  inflammation,  with  redness 
and  thickening  of  the  intestinal  wall.  They  are  also  found 
in  the  ceca,  which  are  frequently  thickened  and  distended 
with  a  whitish,  yellowish,  or  greenish  yellow,  pasty  mass. 
After  two  or  three  weeks  the  disease  may  extend  to  the  liver 
and  lungs,  where  it  is  recognized  by  whitish  or  yellowish 
spots  or  by  large  cheesy  nodules.  Geese  are  attacked  by 
another  species,  which  causes  nodules  in  the  kidneys. 

The  life  history  of  a  coccidium  is  very  complicated,  yet 
in  order  to  combat  this  parasite  most  successfully  it  is  neces- 
sary to  know  something  of  its  life  history.  Figure  8  repre- 
sents the  different  stages  in  the  life  history  of  one  of  these 
parasites.  If  one  should  examine  with  a  microscope  the 
contents  of  one  of  the  ceca  of  a  bird  which  died  with  a  form 
of  coccidiosis  he  would  find  forms  somewhat  like  No.  1 
in  the  figure. 

These  are  the  oocysts  or  permanent  cysts  of  the  coccid- 
ium. The  membrane  around  the  outside  of  this  cyst  is 
very  tough  and  will  withstand  almost  all  methods  of  disin- 
fection. It  will  live  and  even  grow  in  sulphuric  acid.  It 
can  be  killed,  however,  by  drying.  The  size  of  one  of  these 
cysts  is  between  2  sVo  o"  and  25VTro  i"ch.  If  this  cyst  is  placed 
under  the  right  conditions  for  development  the  first  step  is 


Diseases  of  the  Alimentary   Tract  73 

for  the  protoplasm  to  divide  into  four  spherical  bodies  which 
are  called  sporoblasts  (Fig.  8,  2).     Each  of  these  sporoblasts 


SO,    ' 


/(v 


Fig.  8.  —  Diagrammatic  representation  of  the  life  history  of  a  coccidium.      (After  Cole 
and  Hadley.) 

then  divides  into  two  sickle-shaped  sporozoids  (cf.  Fig.  S,  3 
and  4) .     These  sporozoids  are  then  set  free  in  the  intestinal 


74  Diseases  of  I'miltri/ 

tract  (4a)  and  each  one  penetrates  with  its  pointed  end  an 
epithelial  cell  of  the  intestine  as  at  5.  In  the  figure  5a, 
56,  5c,  6  and  6a,  represent  the  succeeding  stages  of  growth 
of  the  organism  within  the  intestinal  cell.  As  shown  in 
6a  and  7,  the  parasite  grows  so  large  that  it  completely  fills 
the  cell.  Finally  these  cells  are  broken  down  and  torn  off 
the  intestinal  wall.  The  stage  of  the  parasite  shown  at  6a 
and  7  is  known  as  the  schizont.  The  next  step  is  for  the 
schizont  to  break  up  into  a  larger  number  of  sharp  pointed 
bodies  as  shown  at  7a.  These  escape  and  enter  other  epi- 
thelial cells  just  as  the  somewhat  similar  bodies  did  at  5. 
At  this  point  the  organism  may  do  one  of  two  things.  The 
small  sporozoids  from  7a  may  develop  exactly  as  the 
sporozoids  did  from  5  to  7.  This  part  of  the  life  cycle,  as 
shown  by  the  shorter  arrow  from  7a  to  5,  may  be  repeated 
any  number  of  times. 

If,  however,  the  conditions  are  not  very  good,  i.e.,  the 
bird  is  about  to  die,  the  sporozoids  undergo  an  entirely  dif- 
ferent development,  as  shown  at  numbers  7  to  15  (Fig.  8). 
Here  the  sporozoids  enter  the  epithelial  cells  and  some  de- 
velop into  very  large  (egg)  cells  (female  element),  as  shown  in 
<Sa.  Others,  9a  and  10a,  form  a  very  large  number  of  minute 
motile  zooids  or  sperms  (male  element)  which  unite  with 
one  or  more  of  the  large  egg  cells  as  shown  at  11.  After 
this  sexual  union  there  is  developed  the  oocyst  like  No.  1, 
with  which  we  started.  At  all  stages  of  this  disease  many 
of  these  cysts  are  carried  to  the  outside  with  the  feces 
and  upon  being  picked  up  serve  to  infect  other  birds. 
Death  is  caused  by  the  parasite  attacking  so  many  of 
the  intestinal  cells  that  the  bird  is  no  longer  able  to  digest 
its  food. 

Other  species  of  coccidia  have  different  life  cycles.  Some 
are  simpler  and  some  more  complex  than  the  example 
given  above. 


Diseases  of  the  Aliincntary   Traet  75 

Cole  and  Hadley  ^  have  advanced  the  claim  that  Black- 
head {Enterohepatitis)  is  caused  by  a  species  of  coccidium. 
This  view  is  not  admitted  by  others.  (For  discussion  see 
pp.  94-99).  Coccidia  are,  however,  responsible  for  several 
serious  diseases  of  poultry. 

The  question  of  the  identity  of  species  of  coccidia  attack- 
ing fowls,  wild  birds,  and  other  animals  has  received  con- 
siderable attention.  Fantham  ^  has  shown  that  the  coccid- 
ium of  the  grouse  which  causes  the  dwindling  of  the  broods 
in  the  early  summer  is  equally  injurious  to  young  fowls  and 
pigeons.  Some  authors  have  claimed  that  the  coccidium 
of  the  rabbit  (Eimeria  (Coccidium)  cuniculi)  is  identical 
with  that  in  birds.  F'antham  gives  the  results  of  experi- 
ments which  show  that  the  organism  from  rabbits  is  entirely 
distinct  from  that  found  in  birds  {Eimeria  avium)  and  that 
the  former  will  not  cause  disease  in  birds.  A  similar  con- 
clusion is  reached  by  Jewett  ^  except  that  he  believes  that 
under  certain  conditions  the  coccidium  from  rabbits  can 
also  produce  disease  in  young  chicks. 

Diagnosis.  —  There  are  no  special  external  symptoms  of 
this  disease  until  in  an  advanced  stage.  Adult  fowls  have 
considerable  powers  of  resistance  to  this  parasite,  and  the 
disease  with  them  is  more  frequently  seen  in  diarrhea, 
a  chronic  form.  The  symptoms  are  dullness,  weakness, 
sleepiness,  diarrhea,  and  loss  of  weight,  although  the  birds 
retain  their  appetites  for  a  considerable  time.  In  many 
cases  the  only  symptoms  are  diarrhea,  with  loss  of  weight, 

'  Cole,  L.  J.,  and  Hadley,  P.  B.,  "Blackhead  in  Turkeys."  Rhode 
Island  Expt.  Stat.  Bui.  No.  141,  pp.  1.38-272,  1910. 

-Fantham,  H.  B.,  "Coeeidiosis  in  British  Game  Birds  and 
Poultry."     Jour.  Economic  Biology,  Vol.  6,  pp.  75-96,  1911. 

"Experimental  Studies  of  Avian  Coeeidiosis."     Proc.  Zool. 

Soc,  London,  Vol.  3,  pp.  708-722,  1910. 

'Jewett,  "Coeeidiosis  of  the  Fowl  and  Calf."  Jour.  Comp. 
Path,  and  Therap.,  Vol.  24,  pp.  207-225,  1911. 


76  Diseases  of  Poultry 

and  after  a  time  apparent  recovery,  though  the  germs  con- 
tinue to  multiply  in  the  intestine  and  to  be  spread  with  the 
droppings  for  several  months  afterwards.  Fowls  affected 
in  this  manner  may  die  suddenly  without  previously  showing 
any  serious  symptoms.  Post-mortem  examination  often 
shows  the  liver  enlarged  and  disfigured  with  whitish  or 
yellowish  spots.  The  ceca  are  inflamed  and  often  clogged 
w^ith  pus  and  fecal  matter. 

Pigeons  are  affected  with  a  more  acute  type  of  this  disease 
in  which  the  symptoms  appear  only  a  short  time  before 
death.  Generally,  however,  they  are  dull  and  sleepy  for  a 
day  or  two,  and  sometimes  they  have  a  chronic  form,  char- 
acterized by  diarrhea  and  loss  of  weight. 

Geese  with  coccidiosis  of  the  kidneys  lose  flesh  rapidly, 
without  apparent  cause,  and  become  very  weak  and  almost 
unable  to  walk.  They  remain  quiet  most  of  the  time,  wuth 
belly  resting  upon  the  ground.  Some  of  them  are  con- 
spicuous by  lying  on  their  backs  with  their  feet  widely 
separated,  and  if  placed  upon  their  feet  they  take  a  few 
steps,  fall,  and  resume  their  former  position.  In  all  such 
cases  the  birds  lose  their  appetites  and  continue  to  get 
weaker  until  they  die. 

Treatment.  —  Medical  treatment  of  coccidiosis  is  of  very 
little  avail  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge.  Isolation, 
cleanliness  and  disinfection  are  probably  the  most  depend- 
able treatment.  Meyer  and  Crocker  ^  claim  that  in  an 
outbreak  of  coccidiosis  in  which  nearly  1800  chickens  died 
in  from  3  to  6  weeks  they  had  no  success  with  any  of  the 
medical  treatments  used.  They  state  that  the  epidemic 
was  finally  eradicated  by  isolation,  disinfection  and  clean- 
liness. 

'Meyer,  K.  F.,  and  Crocker,  W.  J.,  "Some  Experiments  on 
Medical  Treatment  of  Coccidiosis  in  Chickens."  Amer.  Vet.  Re- 
view, Vol.  43,  pp.  497-507,  1913. 


Diseases  of  the  Alimentary  Tract  77 

Cole  and  Hadley  ^  recommend  for  treatment  of  this  dis- 
ease in  connection  with  blackhead  in  turkeys  the  following : 
"  (1)  Isolate  the  sick  bird  from  the  flock  and  place  it  in  a 
dry,  well  lighted  location  free  from  cold  and  drafts.  (2) 
Feed  sparingly  on  soft,  light,  easily  assimilable  food,  with 
little  grain,  especially  corn."  The  chief  preventive 
measures  are  to  keep  the  birds  on  fresh  ground ;  to  isolate 
any  birds  showing  the  least  sign  of  disease,  to  destroy  all 
dead  birds  and  to  protect  the  birds  from  contamination  car- 
ried either  by  new  stock  or  by  other  poultry  or  by  wild  birds 
as  sparrows,  crows,  etc. 

According  to  Salmon  ^  the  most  successful  treatment  has 
been  to  put  3  grains  of  copperas  (sulphate  of  iron)  to  a 
quart,  or  15  grains  of  catechu  to  a  gallon  of  the  water  given 
the  birds  to  drink.  They  should  also  be  given  an  occasional 
dose  of  calomel  (f  to  1  grain)  or  of  castor  oil  (2  to  3  teaspoon- 
fuls).  They  may  also  be  given  castor  oil  containing  5  to 
10  drops  of  oil  of  turpentine  with  each  dose. 

Peritonitis 

The  thin  serous  membrane  which  lines  the  abdominal 
cavity  and  covers  the  internal  organs  is  called  the  peritoneum. 
Inflammation  of  this  membrane  may  occur  in  connection  with 
the  inflammation  of  certain  internal  organs  such  as  the  intes- 
tines, liver,  kidneys,  etc.  In  these  cases  the  inflammation 
extends  from  the  diseased  organs  on  to  the  wall  of  the  body 
cavity.  Peritonitis  may  also  be  caused  by  the  entrance  of 
foreign  bodies  into  the  abdominal  cavity.  It  may  further 
be  caused  by  severe  bruises  or  injuries  of  the  abdominal 
wall. 

1  hoc.  cit. 

2  Salmon,  D.  E.,  "Important  Poultry  Disease."  U.  S.  Dept. 
of  Agric.     Farmers'  Bull.  No.  530,  pp.  1-36,  1913. 


78  Diseases  of  Poiiltn/ 

Peritonitis  probably  always  follows  the  entrance  of  fecal 
matter  into  the  body  cavity  through  perforation  of  the 
intestines.  Perforations  may  be  caused  by  severe  inflamma- 
tion of  the  intestinal  walls,  or  by  the  puncturing  of  the  wall 
by  parasitic  round  worms  or  other  parasites,  or  by  sharp 
pointed  foreign  bodies  pushing  through.  Birds  have  a 
pernicious  habit  of  picking  up  bright  pieces  of  metal,  glass, 
etc.  Cases  of  peritonitis  have  occurred  in  the  Maine  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station  flock  which  were  caused  by 
the  entrance  of  partly  digested  food  from  the  gizzard  through 
a  perforation  caused  by  a  small  nail,  a  watch  spring  or  a  pin. 

By  far  the  largest  number  of  cases  of  peritonitis  which 
have  occurred  in  the  Maine  Station  flock,  however,  have 
been  associated  with  the  failure  of  yolks  to  enter  the  oviduct 
or  with  the  backing  of  partly  formed  eggs  into  the  body  cavity. 
Somewhat  extensive  studies  ^  have  shown  that  even  when 
it  is  impossible  for  yolks  to  enter  the  oviduct  the  reproduc- 
tive organs  pass  through  their  normal  active  cycles.  The 
yolks  are  ovulated  into  the  body  cavity.  Further  if  yolks 
can  enter  the  oviduct,  but  if  their  passage  is  prevented  at 
some  level  of  the  duct,  either  the  partly  formed  egg  remains 
in  the  duct  forming  immense  masses  (concrements)  or  they 
are  carried  back  into  the  body  cavity  by  antiperistalsis. 
These  studies  have  shown  that  in  about  three-fourths  of  the 
experimental  cases  the  birds  are  able  to  absorb  these  yolks 

1  Pearl,  R.,  and  Curtis,  M.  R.,  "Studies  on  the  Physiology  of 
Reproduction  in  the  Domestic  Fowl,"  VIII.  On  some  Physiolog- 
ical Effects  of  Ligation,  Section  or  Removal  of  the  Oviduct.  Jour. 
Expt.  Zool,  Vol.  17,  pp.  395-424,  1914. 

"Studies  on  the  Physiology  of  Reproduction  in  the  Domes- 
tic Fowl,"  X.  Further  Data  on  Somatic  and  Genetic  SteriHty. 
Jour.  Exp.  Zool,  1915. 

Curtis,  M.  R.,  "Studies  on  the  Physiology  of  Reproduction  in  the 
Domestic  Fowl."  XII.  On  an  AbnormaHty  of  the  Oviduct  and 
its  Effect  upon  Reproduction.  Biol.  Bui.,  Vol.  XXVIII,  pp.  154- 
16.3,  1915. 


Diseases  of  the  Alimentary   Tract  79 

or  eggs  without  any  serious  disturbance  in  their  metaboHc 
processes.  Several  cases  have  also  occurred  where  sup- 
posedly normal  birds  were  absorbing  large  numbers  of  yolks 
or  eggs.  These  birds  were  in  apparently  perfect  physical 
condition.  The  lumen  of  the  duct  was  interrupted  by  fusion 
of  the  funnel  lips ;  development  of  a  tumor  within  the  duct, 
rupture  of  the  duct,  or  failure  of  a  portion  of  the  duct  to 
develop. 

Nevertheless  in  about  one-fourth  of  the  experimental 
cases,  and  in  many  natural  cases  of  obstruction  to  the  duct, 
death  results  from  peritonitis,  which  is  apparently  caused 
by  the  failure  of  the  peritoneum  to  resorb  the  yolks  or  eggs. 

Diagnosis.  —  The  sick  birds  appear  restless  and  lose  their 
appetite.  There  is  a  high  fever.  The  abdomen  is  swollen, 
hot  and  tender.  Pressure  on  the  abdomen  produces  evi- 
dence of  sharp  pain.  Usually,  but  not  always,  a  severe  thirst 
accompanies  peritonitis.  As  the  disease  progresses  the  bird 
becomes  weaker,  is  unable  to  stand  and  the  legs  are  drawn 
up  close  to  the  body  often  with  convulsive  movements. 

Post-mortem  examination  shows  the  peritoneum  con- 
gested and  covered  with  an  opaque  whitish  or  yellowish 
exudate.  This  gives  it  the  appearance  of  being  thicker 
than  usual.  In  some  cases  quite  large  quantities  of  yellowish 
cheesy  matter  (pus)  are  formed.  This  may  be  in  free  lumps 
or  masses  or  may  adhere  in  a  thin  layer  to  the  surface  of 
the  peritoneum.  The  abdomen  sometimes  contains  a  yellow- 
ish turbid  serous  liquid  which  may  have  an  offensive  odor. 

Treatment  and  Prognosis.  —  Only  very  seldom  is  treat- 
ment for  peritonitis  successful.  The  disease  is  not  usually 
recognized  until  in  an  advanced  stage.  Ziirn^  recommends 
wrapping  parts  of  the  bird  in  wet  cloths  and  to  give  inter- 
nally tincture  of  aconite,  2  drops  (at  the  most)  with  a  tea- 

1  Ziirn,  F.A.,  "Die  Krankheiten  des  Hausgeflugel."  Weimar, 
pp.  237,  1882. 


80  Diseases  of  Poultry 

spoonful  of  water  2  or  3  times  a  day.  Sanborn  recommends 
1  grain  opium  pills  twice  a  day  to  relieve  pain,  and  warm 
liquid  foods  such  as  meat  juice  and  milk  in  equal  parts. 


Abdominal  Dropsy  or  Ascites 

Etiology.  —  This  disease  is  sometimes  called  chronic 
peritonitis.  It  is  characterized  by  the  accumulation  of  a 
large  quantity  of  liquid  in  the  abdominal  cavity.  In  some 
cases  the  abdomen  becomes  so  distended  that  it  nearly  or 
quite  touches  the  ground  when  the  bird  is  standing.  Salmon 
says  :  "  If  examined  by  slight  pressure  of  the  hand  the  swell- 
ing is  found  to  be  soft  and  fluctuating ;  it  will  yield  in  one 
place  and  cause  greater  distention  at  another.  That  is, 
it  gives  the  sensation  of  sac  filled  with  liquid." 

Abdominal  dropsy  may  begin  with  a  mild  case  of  peri- 
tonitis which  has  continued  for  a  long  time  without  becoming 
serious.  In  young  chicks  it  is  said  to  be  due  to  an  anaemic 
condition  produced  by  bad  feeding  and  insanitary  conditions. 
In  older  birds  it  may  also  result  from  this  same  cause  or  may 
be  due  to  some  obstruction  of  the  venous  circulation  either  by 
a  tumor  or  by  some  structural  disease  of  the  abdominal  organs. 

Diagnosis.  —  The  most  marked  symptom,  of  course,  is 
the  enlarged,  flabby  abdomen.  Salmon  says:  "Fowls 
affected  in  this  way  are  dull,  disinclined  to  move,  generally 
feeble  with  pale  comb  and  diminished  appetite." 

Treatment.  —  "Treatment  of  this  condition  is  not  profit- 
able, but  in  special  cases,  stimulating  diet  with  considerable 
animal  food,  tonics  and  diuretics  may  be  tried.  Iodide 
of  potassium  or  iodide  of  iron  in  doses  of  1  grain  is  particu- 
larly indicated."  (Salmon.)  Tapping  with  a  hollow  needle 
or  trocar  through  the  skin  and  muscles  of  the  abdomen 
and  allowing  the  fluid  to  escape  is  also  recommended.  It 
will  usually  be  found  more  profitable  to  kill  the  bird. 


CHAPTER  VI 

Poisons 

Poultry  on  free  range  about  farms  and  especially  on  small 
city  lots  often  obtain  poisonous  substances.  Most  of  the 
poisons  obtained  by  fowls  are  the  so-called  mineral  poisons. 
The  chief  symptom  of  poisoning  by  these  substances  is 
acute  inflammation  of  the  digestive  tract.  The  narcotic 
or  vegetable  poisons  on  the  other  hand  cause  severe  conges- 
tion of  the  blood  vessels  in  the  spinal  cord  and  brain. 

Among  the  principal  poisons  likely  to  affect  poultry  may 
be  mentioned  the  following : 

Common  Salt,  Nitrate  of  Soda,  Concentrated  Lyes 

Common  salt  is  most  frequently  obtained  in  excessive 
amounts  from  eating  salt  meat  or  fish.  Suffram  ^  reports 
a  case  in  which  fowls  were  poisoned  by  being  fed  a  mash 
made  of  potatoes  to  which  salt  had  been  added.  Milk  and 
other  liquids,  prescribed  after  13  had  succumbed,  resulted 
in  the  recovery  of  the  2  remaining.  Chemical  analysis  of  the 
food  in  the  crops  showed  that  each  bird  had  taken  from  10 
to  14  grams  of  salt.  From  experiments  instituted  to  deter- 
mine the  minimum  toxic  dose  of  salt  it  is  concluded  that  a  dose 
of  4  grams  per  kilogram  (about  jt  oz.  per  pound)  of  body 

'  Suffram,  F.,  Rev.  Gen.  Medecin  Veterinaire,  I.  13,  pp.  698-705, 
1909. 

G  81 


82  Diseases  of  Poultry 

weight  is  sufficient  to  produce  death.  The  fact  that  in 
these  experiments  one  fowl  resisted  such  a  dose  is  thought 
to  have  been  due  to  a  certain  toleration  established  by  pre- 
vious repeated  injections  of  smaller  doses.  Ziirn  ^  gives  a 
somewhat  larger  amount  as  fatal.  •  He  says  that  15  to  30 
grams  (^  to  1  oz.)  of  common  salt  will  kill  a  healthy  hen  in 
from  8  to  12  hours. 

The  writers  had,  some  years  ago,  a  rather  serious  experi- 
ence with  salt  poisoning.  In  this  case  the  salt  was  mixed 
with  wheat,  probably  as  a  result  of  the  latter  following  the 
former  as  a  cargo  in  the  hold  of  a  vessel.  A  number  of 
birds  died,  and  the  whole  flock  was  made  rather  seriously 
ill  before  the  cause  was  discovered. 

Nitrate  of  soda  is  used  as  a  fertilizer  and  is  eaten  by  hens 
along  with  worms,  etc.,  which  they  scratch  up.  Lye  is 
obtained  only  when  carelessly  left  about  the  grounds.  The 
treatment  for  such  poisons  according  to  Salmon  is  to  give 
"  abundant  mucilaginous  drinks  such  as  infusion  of  flaxseed, 
together  with  stimulants,  strong  coft'ee  and  brandy  being 
particularly  useful." 

Arsenic  may  be  obtained  either  from  rat  poison  or  from 
various  arsenical  sprays  used  to  kill  insects.  Copper  is 
used  in  such  spraying  mixtures  as  Bordeaux.  Where  sprays 
ing  has  been  done  properly  there  should  be  no  danger  of  the 
birds  getting  enough  of  the  poison  to  injure  them.  Some- 
times, however,  the  vessels  containing  the  mixtures  are 
emptied  within  range  of  the  fowls  or  the  substances  are 
handled  carelessly  in  other  ways. 

The  symptoms  of  arsenic  poisoning  are  given  by  Beeck^ 
as  follows  :  "Secretion  of  large  quantities  of  saliva,  choking, 
hiccoughing,   great  anxiety   and  nervousness,    little  or   no 


1  Ziirn,  F.  A.,  "Die  Krankheiten  des  Hausgefliigel." 

2  "  Die  Federviehzucht,"  1908,  p.  828. 


Poisons  83 

appetite,  thin,  often  bloody  feces,  slow  and  difficult  breath- 
ing, unsteady  walk,  trembling  and  convulsions,  expansion  of 
the  pupils.  Death  ordinarily  occurs  in  a  very  short  time." 
Treatment  should  be  with  sulphate  of  iron,  calcined  magnesia, 
or  large  quantities  of  milk.  Salmon  also  recommends  white 
of  egg  and  flaxseed  mucilage. 

The  special  symptom  of  copper  poisoning  is  diarrhea,  the 
copper  giving  a  blue  or  green  color  to  the  feces.  Evidence 
of  violent  pain  may  follow  with  collapse,  convulsions  or 
paralysis.  The  circulation  and  respiration  are  weak. 
Usually  fatal  in  a  few  hours.  Large  quantities  of  milk, 
white  of  egg,  mucilage,  and  sugar  water  are  recommended. 

Lead  and  zinc  poisoning  occur  chiefly  from  eating  paint 
skins.  The  symptoms  so  far  as  they  have  been  observed  in 
poultry  do  not  differ  greatly  from  those  seen  in  copper 
poisoning.  The  treatment  recommended  by  Salmon  is  the 
same  as  for  copper.  With  lead  poisoning  the  sulphates  of 
soda,  potash  or  magnesia  are  recommended  with  the  object 
of  forming  insoluble  sulphate  of  lead. 

Mercury  Poisoning.  —  Mercury  poisoning  occurs  chiefly 
through  drinking  bichloride  (perchloride  or  corrosive  sub- 
limate) solution  or  eating  mercurial  ointment.  The  bi- 
chloride solution  is  a  common  antiseptic  and  is  sometimes 
carelessly  left  where  the  birds  have  access  to  it.  Ammoni- 
ated  mercurial  ointment  is  used  to  free  the  birds  from  lice 
(cf.  p.  205).  It  is  sometimes  left  where  birds  can  get  at  the 
supply.  More  frequently  poisoning  results  from  the  too 
free  application  of  the  ointment.  If  it  is  left  in  lumps  on 
the  feathers  the  birds  will  eat  it.  In  man  mercury  poison- 
ing is  known  to  occur  from  too  frequent  or  too  long  con- 
tinued use  of  bichloride  as  a  disinfectant,  especially  for 
large  wounds.  In  the  fowl  it  is  not  probable  that  such 
extensive  treatment  ever  occurs.  It  is  possible,  though  very 
unlikely,  that  poisoning  due  to  ammoniated  mercurial  oint- 


84  Diseases  of  Poultry 

meat  may  sometimes  occur  through  the  absorption  from  the 
skin.  An  excessive  amount  would  have  to  be  apphed  to 
cause  such  a  result.  As  the  mercury  in  this  ointment  is  in 
an  insoluble  form  it  is  much  less  likely  to  such  absorption 
than  is  the  bichloride. 

The  symptoms  of  mercurial  poisoning  are  loss  of  appetite 
and  frequent  and  sometimes  bloody  dysentery  discharges 
from  the  bowels.  At  autopsy  the  mucosa  of  the  whole 
intestinal  tract  is  seen  to  be  inflamed.  The  renal  tubules 
of  the  kidneys  are  filled  with  a  whitish  crystalline  deposit 
and  the  kidneys  thus  appear  somewhat  hypertrophied. 
Give  large  quantities  of  white  of  egg,  milk,  mucilage  or  flour 
and  water. 

Phosphorus  may  be  obtained  from  rat  poisons  or  from  heads 
of  matches.  If  large  quantities  of  phosphorus  are  eaten  by 
the  bird  severe  inflammation  of  the  stomach  and  intestine 
occurs  and  death  results  in  from  1  to  2  hours.  If  only  a 
small  quantity  is  eaten  the  symptoms,  according  to  Beeck, 
are  weakness,  languor,  ruffled  feathers,  lack  of  appetite. 

Strychnine  is  usually  obtained  by  poultry  from  rat  poisons. 
The  distinctive  symptoms  here,  according  to  Beeck,  are  the 
twisting  of  the  spinal  column  and  paral^'sis.  The  neck  is 
twisted  backward  so  that  the  head  is  often  held  o\qt  the 
rump.  The  treatment  recommended  by  Beeck  is  to  give 
inhalations  of  chloroform  or  internally  1  to  3  grains  of 
chloral  hydrate  dissolved  in  2  tablespoonfuls  of  water.  The 
amount  to  be  given  depends  on  the  size  of  the  bird. 

Ergot  of  Rye  is  one  of  the  vegetable  poisons  which  some- 
times causes  serious  trouble  among  poultry.  This  is  especially 
true  in  European  countries.  In  this  country  so  little  rye 
is  raised  and  fed  to  poultry  that  there  is  little  chance  for 
poisoning.  The  cause  of  the  poisoning  is  a  fungus  which 
attacks  the  rye  plants.  The  symptoms  of  ergot  poisoning  are 
trembling,  intoxication,  great  weakness  and  gangrene  of  the 


Poisons  85 

comb,  beak  and  tongue.     The  treatment  is  to  give  strong 
stimulants  such  as  "brandy,  coffee,  camphor  or  quinine." 

Fowls  are  occasionally  injured  by  eating  the  leaves  of 
poisonous  plants.  The  sense  of  taste,  however,  protects  the 
birds  in  most  cases.  Mr.  H.  B.  Green  ^  says  in  this  con- 
nection :  "  Woodlands  and  fields  abound  in  poisonous  plants, 
and  yet  it  is  seldom,  except  in  the  case  of  birds  that  have 
been  starved  of  green  food  and  have  become  ravenous  for 
it,  that  fowls  ever  succumb  to  vegetable  poisons  as  thus 
obtained.  Protection  apparently  lies  in  the  fact  that  un- 
desirable plants  have  repulsive  flavors.  Especially  in  sub- 
urban poultry  keeping,  danger  arises  when  flower  borders 
are  weeded,  seedlings  thinned  out,  and  plant  rubbish  swept 
up,  if  the  resulting  collection  is  thoughtlessly  given  to  fowls 
in  confined  runs.  Such  birds  are  generally  always  ready  for 
green  food  in  any  form  and  in  their  eagerness  to  satiate  the 
craving  the  bad  is  often  taken  in  with  the  good." 

Ptomaine   Poisoning 

Fowls  are  subject  to  ptomaine  poisoning.  The  cause  of 
this  is,  of  course,  feeding  spoiled  or  decayed  food.  Cases  of 
this  trouble  are  more  frequent  in  small  flocks  where  table 
waste  is  fed  to  a  comparatively  few  birds. 

Diagnosis.  —  The  more  common  symptoms  of  ptomaine 
poisoning  in  fowls  are :  at  first  an  unsteady  gait  showing 
lack  of  control  (partial  paralysis)  of  the  muscles.  If  the 
birds  are  badly  poisoned,  prostration  comes  quickly.  The 
birds  lie  in  a  relaxed  condition  with  head  and  neck  curled 
towards  the  breast.  The  comb  turns  black.  In  some  cases 
there  is  a  diarrheal  discharge,  occasionally  bloody.  Death 
usually  occurs  in  a  short  time.     In  some  respects  the  symp- 

1  Illus.  Poultry  Record,  Vol.  I,  p.  689. 


80  Dueases  of  Poultry 

toms  are  similar  to  those  of  "limber  neck"  (see  page 
202). 

Post-mortem  examination  shows  a  congestion  of  the  liver, 
intestines  and  kidneys. 

Treatment.  —  If  the  trouble  is  recognized  in  time  the 
birds  should  be  given  a  teaspoonful  of  castor  oil.  Follow 
this  with  sulphate  of  strychnine  in  doses  of  one-fifth  grain 
every  five  hours. 

Treatment  for  Poisons  in  General 

In  the  great  majority  of  cases  a  poisoned  bird  is  not  dis- 
covered until  too  late  for  treatment.  Even  if  found  it  is 
usually  not  worth  the  poultryman's  time  to  treat  individual 
birds.  The  symptoms  of  the  different  poisons  have  been 
given  in  some  detail  with  the  hope  that  they  may  enable 
the  poultryman  to  distinguish  the  kind  of  poisoning  which 
they  may  encounter  and  may  thus  be  able  to  remove  the 
source  of  the  trouble  before  other  birds  are  affected.  In  the 
case  of  valuable  birds  the  remedies  indicated  for  the  different 
poisons  may  aid  in  saving  some  of  them. 


CHAPTER  VII 

Diseases  of  the  Liver 

A  LARGE  number  of  diseases  of  the  liver  are  described  by 
writers  on  this  subject.  In  the  great  majority  of  these 
diseases  there  are  no  external  symptoms  by  which  one  can 
be  told  from  another.  The  most  common  diseases  which 
affect  the  liver  may,  for  the  moment,  be  divided  into  two 
rough  classes  which  it  is  highly  important  for  the  poultry- 
man  to  distinguish.  These  again  can  only  be  distinguished 
in  dead  birds,  but  the  occurrence  of  cases  of  either  kind  in 
any  number  gives  the  poultryman  a  clew  as  to  what  the 
trouble  may  be  and  a  chance  to  correct  it.  In  the  first  of 
these  two  classes  a  post-mortem  examination  shows  the 
liver  covered  with  nodules  of  a  cheesy-like  appearance  when 
opened.  These  nodules  occur  not  only  in  the  liver,  but  also 
in  the  spleen,  intestine  and  other  organs  and  sometimes  in 
these  latter  regions  without  affecting  the  liver  at  all.  With 
such  symptoms  we  may  be  fairly  certain  that  the  trouble  is 
tuberculosis  and  for  a  further  discussion  of  this  the  reader 
is  referred  to  Chapter  IX. 

In  the  second  class  of  these  diseases  the  liver  is  usually 
greatly  enlarged,  although  in  some  cases  it  is  shrunken  and 
smaller  than  normal.  With  some  of  these  diseases  the  liver 
may  be  spotted  or  marbled,  but  the  condition  is  quite  dif- 
ferent from  the  cheesy  nodules  found  in  tuberculosis. 

It  is  to  this  second  class  of  diseases  that  the  name  "liver 
disease"  properly  belongs.  "Liver  disease"  as  popularly 
87 


88  Diseases  of  Poultry 

interpreted  includes  a  number  of  different  diseases  distin- 
guished by  the  pathologist.  The  more  common  are  :  Con- 
gestion of  the  Liver,  Inflammation  of  the  Liver,  Atrophy  of 
the  Liver,  Hypertrophy  or  Enlargement  of  the  Liver,  Fatty 
Degeneration  of  the  Liver,  and  Jaundice. 

The  diagnosis  of  these  different  diseases  is  based  entirely 
on  the  post-mortem  appearances.  Li  no  one  of  them  are 
there  any  outward  symptoms  which  distinguish  it  from  the 
others.  Vale  says  it  is  impossible  for  the  most  scientific 
observer  to  diagnose  either  inflammation  or  congestion  of 
the  liver  with  positive  certainty. 

Further  not  only  the  symptoms,  but  also  the  causes  and 
the  treatments  of  these  several  diseases  are  essentially  the 
same.  The  names  of  the  diseases  themselves  indicate  in  a 
general  way  the  post-mortem  appearances. 

For  these  reasons  it  seems  best  to  give  a  brief  discussion 
of  the  general  causes  of  "liver  disease"  and  the  usual  treat- 
ment. This  will  be  followed  by  a  brief  account  of  each 
disease  and  its  special  symptoms  and  treatment,  if  any. 

Cause  of  Liver  Disease.  —  Lack  of  exercise  and  over-feed- 
ing, especially  with  rich  albuminous  foods,  are  the  most 
common  causes  of  diseases  of  the  liver.  In  addition  to 
these  may  be  mentioned  the  obstruction  of  the  circulation 
of  the  blood  by  disease  of  the  heart  and  lungs.  Congestion 
of  the  liver  may  be  caused  by  any  disease  of  the  crop,  giz- 
zard or  bowels  that  obstructs  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 

Undoubtedly  the  larger  proportion  of  liver  troubles 
results  from  improper  feeding  and  housing.  It  is  a  common 
experience  that  complaints  are  more  frequent  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  winter.  The  birds  have  been  housed  for  some 
time  without  sufficient  exercise  and  fed  rich  nitrogenous 
food.  These  causes  operate  slowly  and  since  there  are  no 
outward  symptoms  of  liver  disease  the  poultryman  is  usually 
unaware  of  any  trouble  until  his  birds  begin  dying  in  the 


Diseases  of  the  Liver  89 

early  spring.  The  conditions  have  then  continued  so  long 
that  it  is  often  difficult  to  counteract  them.  This  point 
emphasizes  the  necessity  of  keeping  the  flock  under  sanitary 
and  healthful  conditions. 

Diagnosis  of  Liver  Disease. — There  are  no  special  external 
symptoms.  Some  of  the  symptoms  which  often  accom- 
pany these  disturbances  are:  rough  plumage,  watery 
diarrhea,  first  brownish,  then  yellow ;  lack  of  appetite 
and  indisposition  to  move.  The  comb  may  be  purplish  at 
first,  becoming  dark  and  then  quite  black.  These,  however, 
are  all  merely  symptoms  of  disease  in  general  that  might 
apply  to  any  one  of  a  dozen  or  more  ailments.  The  only 
certain  method  of  recognizing  the  disease  is  by  post-mor- 
tem examination.  Every  poultryman  should  be  familiar 
enough  with  the  normal  appearance  of  the  more  important 
internal  organs  of  a  fowl  to  recognize  abnormal  appearances 
(see  pp.  43-46).  In  general,  when  post-mortem  examina- 
tion shows  the  liver  larger  or  smaller  than  normal,  or  con- 
gested with  blood,  or  marbled,  or  spotted,  we  may  assume 
that  the  bird  probably  had  some  form  of  liver  disease.  Of 
course,  a  diseased  condition  of  the  liver  is  often  associated 
with  other  diseases,  especially  of  the  alimentary  canal. 
Other  organs  should  be  examined  in  all  cases  to  see  if  they 
are  normal.  Special  care  should  be  taken  to  distinguish 
tuberculosis  from  other  diseased  conditions  of  the  liver  and 
intestines. 

Treatment.  ■ —  Since  it  is  not  possible  to  recognize  diseases 
of  the  liver  by  external  symptoms,  the  treatment  of  indi- 
vidual birds  is  out  of  the  question.  If,  however,  post-mor- 
tem examinations  show  that  a  number  of  the  birds  are 
dying  with  liver  trouble  it  is  necessary  to  take  some  remedial 
measures  regarding  the  entire  flock. 

The  first  thing  that  should  be  done  is  to  change  the  diet. 
Less  meat  scrap  and  other  nitrogenous  food  should  be  fed. 


90  Dlsea^ies  o/  PouUrti 

Less  corn  should  be  given  and  more  green  food  added  to  the 
ration.  The  birds  should  be  compelled  to  exercise  more. 
If  it  is  at  all  possible  they  should  be  gotten  out  of  doors  part 
of  each  day.  They  should  have  plenty  of  fresh  air  day  and 
night. 

These  general  remedial  measures  are  only  those  which 
should  be  practiced  at  all  times  as  a  matter  of  general 
hygiene.  When  a  flock  has  once  become  badly  affected  with 
some  form  of  liver  disease  it  cannot  be  expected  that  the 
changed  conditions  will  remedy  all  of  the  trouble  at  once. 
The  causes  which  have  led  to  the  diseased  condition  have 
been  acting  for  a  long  time  and  it  is  only  reasonable  to  expect 
that  it  will  take  some  time  to  get  the  birds  back  into  normal 
health  again.  Some  birds  will  continue  to  become  sick  and 
die,  even  several  weeks  after  the  corrective  measures  have 
been  put  into  operation.  Robinson  ^  advises  disposing  of 
the  entire  flock  when  they  have  been  through  a  serious 
attack  of  liver  disease  and  replacing  them  with  healthy  stock. 
This  seems  to  be  a  more  drastic  measure  than  necessary 
unless  the  attack  has  been  very  bad  indeed.  INIany  other 
things,  such  as  the  value  of  the  particular  strain,  the  possi- 
bility of  replacing  the  flock  with  as  w^ell  bred  birds,  etc., 
should  be  considered. 

With  regard  to  the  special  diseases  already  mentioned  the 
one  most  commonly  met  with,  on  intensive  plants  at  least,  is 

Hypertrojjhy  or  Enlargement  of  the  Liver 

The  cause  of  this  trouble  is  chiefly  concerned  with  food. 
In  our  climate  it  occurs  most  frequently  towards  the  end  of 
the  winter.  The  birds  have  been  confined  to  their  houses 
most  or  all  of  the  winter  months.     Very  often  they  are  over- 

'  Robinson,  J.  H.,  "The  Common  Sense  Poultry  Doctor." 
Boston,  1910. 


Diseases  of  the  Liver  91 

crowded.  The  rich  winter  ration  is  continued  after  the 
weather  begins  to  get  warm  and  less  heating  food  is  needed. 
This  combined  with  too  Httle  exercise  and  not  enough 
green  food  favor  indigestion  and  the  accompanying  sluggish 
action  of  gizzard  and  intestines.  These  are  the  immediate 
causes  of  trouble  with  the  liver.  It  is  said  that  feeding  too 
much  corn  and  barley  is  also  responsible  for  much  liver 
trouble. 

Symptoms.  —  Mr.  H.  B.  Green,  ^  gives  the  following  symp- 
toms of  hypertrophy  of  the  liver.  He  believes  this  to 
be  only  a  stage  in  the  fatty  degeneration  of  this  organ. 
"The  first  sign  that  a  fowl  is  tending  towards  fatty  disease 
of  the  liver  is  increase  in  weight.  The  comb,  wattles  and 
face  remain  a  bright  red  or  take  on  a  dull  bluish  tinge 
from  congestion.  This  sign  of  sluggish  circulation  tells  of 
full  blood  vessels,  and  explains  how  it  is  that  apoplexy  so 
frequently  supervenes  at  this  period.  The  excrement  is  an 
important  symptom  to  note.  It  is  generally  at  first  semi- 
liquid,  of  a  dark  yellow  color,  and  evacuations  are  frequent. 
Thirst  is  noticeable  and  a  large  quantity  of  water  is  drunk, 
especially  after  feeding.  The  appetite  remains  good,  al- 
though the  bird  is  capricious  in  what  it  eats.  A  post- 
mortem examination  of  a  fowl  in  this  phase  of  the  disease 
will  show  a  liver  considerably  enlarged,  of  a  deep  red  color, 
engorged  with  blood,  shining  and  greasy  as  though  it  had 
been  soaked  in  oil,  but  fairly  firm  under  the  knife.  The 
intestines  are  laden  with  masses  of  fat,  so  also  are  the 
mesentery,  —  or  as  it  is  termed  by  butchers,  'the  leaf,'  —  the 
ovary  and  oviduct." 

In  the  next  stage  "Diarrhea  increases,  the  excrement 
perhaps  bloodstained  or  blackened  by  congealed  clots ;  the 
face,  comb  and  wattles  become  a  darker  hue  or  if  jaundice 

1  Illustrated  Poultry  Record,  1909,  p.  691. 


92  Diseases  of  Poultry 

supervenes  they  may  be  pale  or  tinged  with  yellow  bile ; 
more  fat  is  laid  on  internally  and  the  liver  will  prove  to  be 
greatly  enlarged.  So  large  may  this  become  by  the  deposit 
of  fat  globules  between  and  in  the  substance  of  its  cells  that 
on  one  occasion  I  have  removed  from  an  Orpington  cock  a 
liver  that  turned  the  scale  at  a  pound  and  a  half.  This 
stage  is  seldom  passed  and  death  usually  takes  place  from 
syncope,  or  an  accidental  rupture  of  the  softened  liver." 

Treatment.  —  Green  says  further  :  "  Part  of  the  treatment 
consists  of  a  plentiful  allowance  of  green  food.  Nothing  in 
this  way  is  better  than  freshly  gathered  dandelion  leav^es 
when  procurable,  for  the  taraxacum  they  contain  is  a  valu- 
able liver  stimulant.  It  is  not  generally  known  that  the 
sliced  roots  of  the  plants  can  be  steeped  in  boiling  water  to 
make  an  infusion  equally  effective  when  the  leaves  are  no 
longer  obtainable.  The  roots  should  be  gathered  and 
stored  in  dry  boxes.  The  infusion  is  conveniently  mixed 
with  the  morning  soft  food  and  is  always  beneficial  to  birds 
in  confinement  as  an  occasional  liver  tonic." 

Fatty  Degeneration 

As  noted  in  the  above  paragraphs,  Green  regards  this 
disease  as  a  later  stage  in  the  hypertrophy  of  the  liver. 
Salmon,  on  the  other  hand,  believes  it  to  be  a  quite  different 
disease.  The  latter  author  says :  "  On  post-mortem  exam- 
ination the  liver  is  found  shrunken,  hardened  and  marbled 
or  spotted  with  areas  of  grayish  or  yellowish  tissue.  A 
microscopic  examination  shows  the  liver  cells  to  contain 
droplets  of  fat  and  the  liver  tissue  degenerated  and  largely 
replaced  by  yellow  fat  globules. 

As  the  disease  is  not  recognized  during  life,  treatment  is 
out  of  the  question.  If  a  number  of  cases  occur  in  the  same 
flock,  give  greater  variety  of  food  and  a  run  on  the  grass.     In 


Diseases  of  the  Liver  93 

addition,  bicarbonate  of  soda  may  be  given  in  the  drinking 
water  to  the  amount  of  1  or  2  grains  a  day  for  each  bird." 

Atrophy  or  Wasting  of  the  Liver 

This  is  very  similar  in  many  respects  to  the  disease  de- 
scribed by  Salmon  as  fatty  degeneration  and  probably  arises 
from  the  same  cause,  i.e.,  lack  of  variety  in  the  food,  espe- 
cially lack  of  green  food. 

The  post-mortem  appearance  and  the  treatment  are  the 
same  as  those  given  for  fatty  degeneration  above.  With 
both  of  the  diseases  a  weekly  dose  of  some  laxative  such  as 
Epsom  salts  dissolved  in  water  and  mixed  with  the  mash  (a 
level  teaspoonful  to  each  bird)  is  to  be  recommended. 

Congestion  and  Inflammation  of  the  Liver 

These  are  probably  different  stages  of  the  same  disease. 
The  poultryman  will  find  difficulty  in  distinguishing  between 
this  disease  and  that  known  as  hypertrophy  of  the  liver 
(cf.  p.  90).  The  chief  post-mortem  difference  is  that  in 
the  latter  disease  the  liver  is  more  solid,  not  so  easily  torn 
or  ruptured. 

Diagnosis.  —  There  are  no  external  symptoms  other  than 
those  of  dullness  and  the  general  symptoms  of  disease. 
Salmon  says  :  "  It  is  difficult  to  make  a  diagnosis  during  the 
life  of  the  bird.  Post-mortem  examination  reveals  a  greatly 
enlarged  liver  engorged  with  blood,  tender  and  easily  torn 
or  crushed." 

Treatment.  —  Treatment  of  these  diseases  in  individual 
birds  is  very  rarely  successful.  The  general  treatment  of 
the  flock  as  recommended  on  page  89  should  be  attended  to. 
The  chief  medicinal  treatment  should  probably  be  frequent 
doses  of  Epsom  salts. 


94  Diseases  of  Poultry 

Epsom  salts  together  with  bicarbonate  of  soda,  10  grains 
of  each,  given  for  4  or  5  daily  doses  may  be  recommended 
also.  This  should  be  followed  by  the  addition  of  a  good 
tonic  to  the  mash.     (For  stock  tonic  formula  see  p.  71.) 

Jaundice 

Jaundice  or  biliary  repletion  is  said  by  Megnin  to  be  due 
to  long  continued  but  moderate  congestion  of  the  liver. 
This  leads  to  increased  activity  of  this  organ  and  is  followed 
by  the  accumulation  of  a  large  quantity  of  bile  in  the  gall 
bladder  and  ducts  of  the  bird.  This  bile  is  absorbed  by  the 
blood  vessels  and  causes  poisoning  which  may  lead  to  the 
death  of  the  bird. 

Diagnosis.  —  There  are  no  specific  external  symptoms 
other  than  that  the  wattles  and  comb  may  be  yellowish. 
This  also  occurs  in  other  liver  diseases.  Post-mortem 
examination  shows  the  gall  bladder  greatly  distended  with 
bile. 

Treatment.  —  Give  greater  variety  of  food,  especially  more 
green  food.  Give  Epsom  salts  frequently.  Megnin  recom- 
mends I  to  1  grain  of  aloes. 

This  completes  the  list  of  the  liver  diseases  most  commonly 
treated  as  such  by  poultry  veterinarians.  There  are  a  num- 
ber of  other  diseases  which  especially  affect  the  liver  or  are 
caused  by  deranged  function  of  this  organ.  These  may  most 
conveniently  be  mentioned  at  this  place. 

Blackhead    (Infectious   Enterohepatitis) 

Blackhead  is  a  contagious  disease  affecting  the  liver  and 
intestines,  especially  the  blind  pouches  or  ceca  of  the  latter. 
The  disease  is  very  quickly  fatal  among  turkeys.  The 
turkey  is  apparently  more  susceptible  than  any  other  bird 


Diseases  of  the  Liver 


95 


to  this  disease.  In  certain  portions  of  this  country  where 
once  turkey  raising  was  a  promising  industry  it  has  practi- 
cally vanished  because  of  this  disease.  The  disease  is  not 
usually  as  fatal  to  adult  chickens  but  may  cause  very  serious 
losses  at  times.  It  is  believed  by  several  prominent  investi- 
gators of  this  disease  that  white  diarrhea,  so  destructive  to 
young  chicks,  is  caused  by  the  same  organism  as  blackhead. 
(For  further  discussion  of  this  see  Chapter  XVIII.) 

The  cause  of  blackhead  disease  according  to  Theobald 
Smith  ^  is  a  minute  par- 
asitic prOtozoon  known  as 
Amoeba  meleagridis. 
These  appear  as  minute 
round  bodies  not  more 
than  10  microns  (25V"o 
inch)  in  diameter  em- 
bedded in  the  submucous 
and  intramuscular  tissue 
of  the  wall  of  the  ceca 
and  may  extend  even  be- 
yond these  to  the  mesen- 
teries. In  the  liver  there 
are  circular  spots  (Fig. 
9)  representing  partial 
necrosis  of  the  liver  tissue  and  in  these  spots  the  same  or- 
ganisms are  also  present  in  great  numbers.  The  analogy 
between  this  organism  and  that  concerned  in  human  amoe- 
biasis  is  very  close. 

More  recently  Cole  and  Hadley  ^  at  the  Rhode  Island 


Fig.  9.  —  Showing  condition  of  liver  in 
"blackhead."  (Modified  after  Moore.) 


1  Smith,  Theobald.,  "An  Infectious  Disease  among  Turkeys 
Caused  by  Protozoa  (Infectious  enterohepatitis)."  U.  S.  Dept. 
of  Agr.,  Bur.  Anim.  Ind.,  Bui.  8,  pp.  7-38,  1895. 

2  Cole,  L.  J.,  and  Hadley,  P.  B.,  "Blackhead  in  Turkeys."  Rhode 
Island  Expt.  Stat.  Bui.  No.  141,  pp.  138-272,  1910. 


96  Diseases  of  Poultry 

Experiment  Station  have  claimed  that  the  causative  or- 
ganism belongs  to  another  group  of  protozoa  known  as 
Coccidia.  The  point  to  the  discussion  as  to  the  cause  of  this 
disease  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  Coccidium  has  a  very  different 
life  history  (cf.  p.  73)  from  the  Amoeba,  consequently  it 
has  different  methods  of  dispersal  and  different  means  must 
be  used  in  combating  it. 

Cole  and  Hadley  claim  that  the  amoeba  described  by 
Smith  is  one  of  the  stages  in  the  life  history  of  the  coccidium. 
Smith,  however,  in  a  more  recent  paper  ^  reaffirms  his  posi- 
tion with  regard  to  the  amoebic  cause  of  the  disease.  He 
claims  that  the  Rhode  Island  authors  have  confused  the 
fact  that  coccidia  are  frequently  present  in  birds  as  an 
entirely  separate  infection.  He  states  that  there  is  "  ample 
evidence  to  show  that  enterohepatitis  may  run  its  course  in  a 
flock  without  the  presence  of  a  single  coccidium  cyst  to  sug- 
gest coccidiosis.  It  is  evident  that  coccidiosis  among  birds 
has  been  frequently  seen  during  the  past  30  years  but  with- 
out involvement  of  the  liver." 

These  criticisms  by  Smith  were  partially  answered  by 
Cole  and  Hadley  ^  but  the  chain  of  evidence  presented  by 
them  is  far  from  complete.  Not  until  the  complete  life 
history  of  the  coccidium  has  been  worked  out  will  there  be 
conclusive  evidence  as  to  whether  or  not  it  is  concerned  in 
this  disease.  In  the  meantime  it  appears  that  the  conten- 
tion of  Smith  is  well  founded,  viz.,  that  the  amoeba  and  the 
coccidium  are  separate  entities  and  that  the  latter  when 
present  is  only  a  secondary  infection. 

The  method  of  infection  by  the  amoeba  is  as  follows,  the 
account  being  based  upon  that  given  by  Salmon  {lac.  cit.)  : 

1  Smith,  Theobald,  "Amoeba  meleagridis."  Science,  N.  S., 
Vol.  32,  pp.  509-512,  1910. 

-  Cole,  L.  J.,  and  Hadley,  P.  B.,  "Amoeba  meleagridis."  Science, 
N.  S.,  Vol.  32,  pp.  918-919,  1910. 


Diseases  of  the  Liver  97 

The  amoeba  leaves  the  bodies  of  the  sick  birds  with  the 
excrement  and  infects  other  birds  by  entering  the  digestive 
organs  with  the  food  and  drink.  It  passes  along  the  ali- 
mentary canal  until  it  arrives  at  the  two  blind  pouches  or 
lateral  extensions  called  the  ceca  (Fig.  7),  where  it  begins  its 
growth  and  produces  the  first  signs  of  disease.  Here  it 
penetrates  the  lining  membrane,  increases  rapidly  in  num- 
bers, and  sets  up  an  inflammatory  process  which  leads  to 
a  great  thickening  of  the  intestinal  wall  and  to  the  filling 
up  and  obstruction  of  the  tube  with  an  accumulation  of 
yellowish  white  or  grayish  cheesy  material  that  is  deposited 
in  concentric  layers. 

The  changes  which  are  almost  constantly  found  in  the 
liver  are  explained  by  assuming  that  the  microbes  are 
carried  by  the  blood  from  the  diseased  ceca  to  the  liver, 
and  are  there  deposited  at  different  points,  where  they 
multiply  and  spread  in  all  directions.  In  this  way  are 
formed  the  numerous  centers  of  disease  which  appear  on  the 
surface  of  the  liver  as  yellowish  spots,  but  which  when  cut 
across  are  seen  to  be  irregularly  spherical  in  shape.  The 
amoebae  are  liberated  in  large  numbers  both  in  the  ceca  and 
in  the  liver,  are  mixed  with  the  intestinal  contents,  and  are 
distributed  with  the  droppings. 

There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  whether  the 
amoeba  is  ever  present  within  the  egg  of  diseased  turkeys, 
but  the  indications  are  that  the  infection  is  not  carried  in 
this  w^ay.  It  no  doubt  often  exists  on  the  outside  of  the 
shell,  from  contamination  when  the  egg  passes  through  the 
cloaca,  and  for  this  reason  the  eggs  should  be  carefully 
cleaned  before  they  are  put  under  the  sitting  hen  or  into 
an  incubator. 

An  important  recent  conclusion  is  that  common  fowls 
harbor  this  parasite,  although  they  rarely  suffer  sufficiently 
from  its  attacks  to  show  marked  symptoms  of  disease.    They 


9S  Di.srofiefi  of  Foultrj/ 

scatter  the  contagion  constantly,  however,  and  young  tur- 
keys, being  more  susceptible,  contract  a  fatal  form  of  the 
disease  and  are  nearly  all  destroyed  by  it.  For  this  reason 
it  is  very  difficult  to  raise  turkeys  on  or  near  grounds  where 
there  are  common  fowls. 

Diagnosis.  —  The  symptoms  of  blackhead  are  most  fre- 
quently seen  in  young  turkeys,  commonly  called  "poults," 
which  are  from  2  weeks  to  3  or  4  months  old.  When  young 
poults  are  infected  experimentally  by  feeding  them  diseased 
livers  they  usually  die  in  about  two  or  three  weeks,  but  when 
infected  naturally  they  generally  take  in  a  smaller  quantity 
of  contagion  and  live  a  longer  time. 

The  affected  birds  at  first  appear  less  lively  than  usual, 
are  not  so  active  in  searching  for  food,  and  when  fed  show  a 
diminished  appetite.  Diarrhea  is  a  nearly  constant  symp- 
tom, being  due  to  the  inflammation  of  the  ceca.  As  the 
disease  progresses  there  is  more  dullness  and  weakness,  the 
wings  and  tail  droop,  and  there  is  often  the  peculiar  dis- 
coloration of  the  head  which  led  to  the  disease  being  called 
"blackhead."  There  is  increasing  prostration  and  loss  of 
weight ;  the  affected  birds,  instead  of  following  their  com- 
panions, stand  about  in  a  listless  manner,  indisposed  to 
move  and  paying  little  attention  to  what  occurs  about  them. 

The  greater  part  of  the  affected  poults  die  within  three 
or  four  months  after  hatching ;  but  with  some  the  disease 
takes  a  more  chronic  form  and  does  not  cause  death  for  a 
year  or  more.  Nearly  all  die  sooner  or  later  from  the  effects 
of  the  disease,  but  in  a  small  proportion  of  the  cases  there 
is  healing  and  recovery. 

The  finding  after  death,  in  young  turkeys,  of  the  diseased 
and  thickened  ceca,  plugged  with  cheesy  contents,  together 
with  the  yellowish  or  yellowish-green  spots  in  the  more  or 
less  enlarged  liver  are  sufficient  indications  to  warrant  a 
diagnosis  of  blackhead. 


Diseases  of  the  Liver  99 

Treatment.  —  The  treatment  of  diseased  birds  has  not 
giv^en  satisfactory  results.  The  remedies  most  often  used 
are  sulphur  5  grains,  sulphate  of  iron  1  grain ;  or  benzo- 
naphthol  1  grain,  salicylate  of  bismuth  1  grain ;  or  sulphate 
of  iron  1  grain,  salicylate  of  soda  1  grain.  These  remedies 
should  be  preceded  and  followed  by  a  dose  of  Epsom  salts 
(10  to  35  grains),  or  of  castor  oil  (|  to  3  tea  spoonfuls). 
Fifteen  grains  of  catechu  to  the  gallon  of  drinking  water 
may  also  have  a  beneficial  effect.  It  seems  clear,  however, 
that  it  does  not  pay  to  doctor  the  sick  poults  and  that  the 
only  hope  of  success  at  present  is  in  preventing  their  infection. 

The  measures  of  prevention  which  have  been  suggested 
are  (1)  obtaining  eggs  from  birds  believed  to  be  healthy; 
(2)  wiping  the  eggs  with  a  cloth  wet  with  alcohol  (80  to  90 
per  cent)  before  they  are  placed  in  the  incubator  or  under  the 
hen  for  hatching,  to  remove  any  contagion  that  might  be 
on  the  shell ;  (3)  hatching  in  an  incubator,  or  at  least  remov- 
ing the  eggs  from  under  the  hen  a  day  or  two  before  hatching 
would  occur,  wiping  with  alcohol,  and  finishing  in  an  incu- 
bator, in  order  to  avoid  exposing  the  poults  to  the  hen ;  (4) 
placing  the  young  poults  on  the  ground  at  a  distance  from 
all  other  domesticated  fowls  and  which  has  not  recently 
been  occupied  by  other  fowls ;  (5)  excluding  so  far  as  pos- 
sible pigeons,  other  wild  birds,  and  rats  and  mice  from  the 
houses  and  runs  occupied  by  the  turkeys ;  (6)  the  frequent 
disinfection  of  the  houses,  feed  troughs,  drinking  fountains, 
etc. ;  (7)  the  immediate  killing  of  diseased  birds  and  the 
destruction  of  their  bodies  by  fire. 

These  radical  measures  are  necessary,  and  in  sections 
of  the  country  which  are  not  too  intensely  infected  they  will 
make  it  possible  to  carry  on  the  turkey  industry  success- 
fully. However,  it  must  be  admitted  that  up  to  the  present 
blackhead  has  proved  to  be  one  of  the  most  difficult  of  all 
diseases  to  prevent  or  eradicate. 


100  Diseases  of  J  Poultry 

The  destruction  of  the  contagion,  after  it  has  been  intro- 
duced into  a  poultry  yard,  has  also  been  found  difficult 
or  impossible.  Some  have  proposed  to  dip  up  and  burn  the 
surface  soil  to  a  depth  of  several  inches,  which  might  be  done 
with  small  yards  but  is  impossible  with  large  ones.  In  most 
cases  the  poultryman  must  be  contented  with  the  appli- 
cation of  a  layer  of  freshly  burned  lime  that  has  been  care- 
fully slaked  to  a  fine,  dry  powder.  After  a  few  weeks  this 
ground  should  be  plowed  and  another  layer  of  lime  applied. 
The  manure  which  has  accumulated  should  be  burned  or 
mixed  with  lime  and  plowed  into  the  ground  of  some  distant 
fields.  The  wall  and  floors  of  the  buildings  should  be  cov- 
ered with  a  good  limewash  containing  6  ounces  of  carbolic 
acid  to  the  gallon.  The  fences  should  receive  a  coat  of 
limewash.  The  feeding  troughs  and  drinking  vessels  should 
be  put  into  a  kettle  of  boiling  water  for  half  an  hour. 
Troughs  too  large  for  this  should  be  burned  and  replaced 
by  new  ones.  After  these  measures  are  adopted,  the  longer 
the  premises  are  left  vacant  the  more  likely  is  the  contagion 
to  be  completely  destroyed.  The  freezing  and  thawing  of 
a  winter  and  spring  will  be  found  of  great  assistance.  In 
beginning  with  a  new  flock  the  precautions  already  men- 
tioned must  be  adopted  to  prevent  the  infection  of  the 
premises. 

Cercomoniasis 

This  is  frequently  called  "spotted  liver."  It,  like  many 
other  liver  diseases,  is  associated  with  intestinal  trouble, 
especially  severe  diarrhea,  that  attacks  poultry  during  the 
summer  months.  The  disease  is  caused  by  a  flagellate 
micro-organism  known  as  Monocercomonas  gaUinarum.  The 
post-mortem  appearance  of  the  liver  in  this  disease  shows 
usually  slightly  depressed  yellowish  necrotic  areas  or  spots. 


Diseases  of  the  Liver  101 

This  fact  usually  distinguishes  this  disease  from  tuber- 
culosis where  there  are  prominent  rounded  cheesy  nodules. 
In  pigeons,  however,  this  cercomonad  is  said  to  cause  rounded 
prominent  nodules  about  the  size  of  a  pea. 

This  same  organism  {Monocercomonas  galUnarum)  is  also 
said  to  be  responsible  for  other  diseases.  The  most  impor- 
tant of  these  is  one  form  of  roup.  Canker  in  squabs  and 
intestinal  diarrhea  in  poultry  are  other  diseases  attributed 
to  this  parasite. 

This  disease  can  be  held  in  check,  it  is  said,  by  keeping 
the  poultry  plant  well  cleaned  and  disinfected  and  by  giving 
the  birds  an  occasional  purgative,  e.g.,  Epsom  salts. 

In  aspergillosis,  the  liver  often  presents  the  appearance  of 
being  "studded  all  over  with  minute,  whitish  or  yellowish 
spots."    This  disease  is  discussed  in  Chapter  XL 

Gout 

In  cases  of  visceral  gout  the  liver  and  adjoining  organs  are 
covered  with  a  fine  chalky  sediment.  This  substance  con- 
sists of  crystals  of  urate  of  soda.  (See  Chapter  XIV  for 
detailed  description.) 

Sarcomatosis  and  Carcinomatosis 

In  some  cases  the  liver  is  affected  with  tumors  or  cancers. 
These  are  usually  found  in  connection  with  similar  develop- 
ments on  the  ovaries  (see  Chapter  XX). 


CHAPTER   VIII 
Fowl  Cholera,  Fowl  Typhoid  and  Fowl  Plague 

Cholera 

Fowl  cholera  is  a  virulent,  usually  fatal  and  highly  in- 
fectious disease.  It  is  entirely  distinct  from  the  ordinary 
forms  of  enteritis  with  which  it  is  often  confused  by  poultry- 
men.  Fowl  typhoid  and  infectious  leuksemia  are  also  often 
mistaken  for  cholera.  Genuine  fowl  cholera  is  rather  rare  in 
this  country  but  is  much  more  common  in  Europe.  Ac- 
cording to  some  investigators  it  is  now  on  the  increase  in  this 
country.  This  disease  was  first  reported  in  this  country 
about  1880  by  Salmon  (Rept.  U.  S.  Comm.  of  Agric).  Owing 
to  the  lack  of  proper  bacteriological  methods  at  that  time 
Salmon  was  not  able  with  certainty  to  identify  this  disease 
with  the  European  cholera.  From  certain  experimental 
work  he  concluded  that  some  of  the  symptoms  exhibited  by 
the  disease  in  this  country  were  different  from  those  de- 
scribed by  European  writers.  About  1894  Moore  ^  obtained 
material  from  several  outbreaks  of  supposed  cholera  but 
found  this  disease  to  differ  in  some  important  respects  from 
the  European  trouble.  Later  Curtice  -  described  a  disease 
similar  to  that  of  Moore's  under  the  name  of  fowl  typhoid. 

1  Moore,  V.  A.,  "A  Study  of  a  Bacillus  Obtained  from  Three 
Outbreaks  of  Fowl  Cholera."  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agric.  Bur.  Anim. 
Ind.,  Bui.  No.  8. 

2  Curtice,  R.,  "Fowl  Typhoid."  Rhode  Island  Agr.  Expt.  Stat. 
Bui.  No.  87. 

102 


Fowl  Cholera,  Fowl   Typhoid  and  Fowl  Plague      103 

What  appears  to  be  the  genuine  European  fowl  cholera  has 
been  reported  several  times  within  the  last  few  years. 

Etiology.  —  Fowl  cholera  is  caused  by  a  minute  bacterium 


Fig.  10.  —  Stained  preparation  of  the  heart  blood  of  a  pigeon  infected  with 
fowl  cholera.  The  small  objects  between  the  blood  corpuscles,  each 
showing  two  dots  of  color,  are  the  cholera  bacteria.  (After  KoUe  and 
Hetsch.) 

known  as  Bacillus  avisepticus  (B.  hipolaris  septicus).  This 
is  a  small  oval  organism  which  when  stained  and  placed  under 
the  microscope  shows  a  dot  of  color  at  each  end  while  the 
middle  part  remains  entirely  unstained  (Fig.  10). 


104  Disease :<  of  Poultry 

The  organism  was  first  recognized  about  1878.  In  1880 
Pasteur  ^  used  it  in  his  epoch  making  work  on  the  production 
of  immunity  with  attenuated  or  non-virulent  cultures.  This 
organism  belongs  in  the  same  group  as  the  hog-cholera 
bacillus  {B.  suisepticus),  rabbit  septicaemia  and  many  other 
destructive  bacteria. 

In  the  diseased  bird  the  organism  can  be  found  in  the  blood 
and  in  nearly  all  the  organs.  When  inoculated  into  the 
breast  of  a  pigeon  or  fowl  it  causes  a  characteristic  hemor- 
rhagic swelling. 

This  organism  is  pathogenic  for  all  kinds  of  poultry  and 
domestic  birds  and  for  nearly  all  kinds  of  wild  birds.  It  is 
also  very  pathogenic  for  rabbits  and  many  other  animals. 
For  larger  animals,  such  as  cattle,  horses,  sheep,  and  swine,  it 
will  cause  severe  or  even  fatal  disease  if  injected  intrave- 
nously. When  fed  to  these  animals  it  does  not  produce  a 
diseased  condition.  Dogs  and  cats  can  eat  great  quantities  of 
meat  from  birds  dead  from  this  desease  without  experiencing 
any  inconvenience.  For  man  this  organism  appeared  to  be 
pathogenic  to  some  extent.  In  any  case  birds  infected  with 
cholera  should  not  be  used  for  food. 

This  organism  is  easily  destroyed  by  drying,  by  the  or- 
dinary disinfectants,  by  a  temperature  of  132°  F.  for  fifteen 
minutes,  and  by  direct  sunlight. 

Diagnosis.  —  The  earliest  indication  of  the  disease  is  a 
yellow  coloration  of  the  urates,  or  that  part  of  the  excrement 
which  is  excreted  by  the  kidneys.  This  in  health  is  a  pure 
white,  though  it  is  frequently  tinted  with  yellow  as  a  result 
of  other  disorders  than  cholera.  While  therefore  this  yel- 
lowish coloration  of  the  urates  is  not  an  absolutely  certain 
proof  of  cholera,  it  is  a  valuable  indication  when  the  disease 
has  appeared  in  a  flock  and  an  effort  should  be  made  to  check 

1  Pasteur,  L.,  "Sur  le  cholera  des  poules  et  I'attenuation  du 
virus  du  cholera  des  poules."     Comptes  Rendus,  1880. 


Fold  Cholera,  Fowl   Typhoid  and  Fowl  Plague      1U5 

its  course  by  isolating  the  sick  birds  as  soon  as  possible.  In 
regard  to  the  yellow  or  green  excreta  Hadley  ^  says :  "  This 
is  a  very  characteristic  symptom.  The  excrement  of  normal 
fowls  is  not  yellow ;  and  when  it  is  green  it  is  a  dark  green, 
approaching  black.  In  cholera  both  yellow  and  green  are 
bright ;  the  green  is  often  an  emerald  green.  These  different 
colors  may  occur  either  together  or  separately  and  both  are 
usually  accompanied  by  diarrhea  and  thick  mucus.  In  case 
it  is  known  that  cholera  is  in  the  neighborhood,  it  is  well  for 
a  poultryman  to  examine,  from  day  to  day,  the  character  of 
the  droppings  on  the  dropping  board." 

In  other  cases  the  first  symptom  is  diarrhea  in  which  the 
excrement  is  passed  in  large  quantities,  and  consists  almost 
entirely  of  urates  mixed  with  colorless  mucus.  Generally 
the  diarrhea  is  a  prominent  symptom.  The  excrement  is 
voided  frequently,  and  consists  largely  of  urates  suspended  in 
a  thin,  transparent,  sometimes  frothy  mucus.  The  urates 
have  a  deep  yellow  color,  which  in  the  later  stages  of  the 
disease  may  change  to  a  greenish  cast. 

Soon  after  these  first  symptoms  appear  the  bird  separates 
itself  from  the  flock,  the  feathers  are  roughened  or  stand  on 
end,  the  wings  droop,  the  head  is  drawn  down  towards  the 
body  and  the  general  outline  of  the  bird  becomes  spherical 
or  ball  shaped.  At  this  period  there  is  great  weakness,  the 
affected  bird  becomes  drowsy  and  may  sink  into  a  deep  sleep 
which  lasts  during  the  last  day  or  two  of  its  life  and  from 
which  it  is  almost  impossible  to  arouse  it.  The  crop  is 
nearly  always  distended  with  food  and  apparently  paralyzed. 
There  is  in  most  cases  intense  thirst.  If  the  birds  are  aroused 
and  caused  to  walk  there  is  at  first  an  abundant  discharge  of 
excrement  followed  at  short  intervals  by  scanty  evacuations. 

The  disease  may  be  acute,  in  which  case  the  bird  dies  in 

1  Hadley,  P.  B.,  "Fowl  Cholera  and  Methods  of  Combating  It." 
Rhode  Island  Agr.  Expt.  Stat.  Bui.  144,  pp.  309-337,  1910. 


106  Diseases  of  Poultry 

from  a  few  hours  to  a  day  or  two.  Or  it  may  be  subacute,  in 
which  case  the  bird  hngers  for  several  days.  Likewise 
within  the  flock  the  birds  may  die  rapidly  until  the  majority 
of  the  flock  are  gone  within  a  few  days  or  they  may  die  a  few 
at  a  time  throughout  a  period  of  several  weeks.  The  period 
of  incubation,  i.e.,  from  the  time  of  exposure  until  the  first 
symptoms,  varies  from  1  to  2  days  in  geese  and  from  4  to 
0  days  in  chickens.^  Salmon  states  that  the  incubation 
period  may  be  as  much  as  20  days. 

Examination  of  the  dead  birds  shows  inflammation  of 
the  digestive  organs,  kidneys,  and  mesenteries  in  nearly  all 
cases.  Accordnig  to  Ward  ^  "  punctiform  hemorrhages  are 
found  upon  the  heart  with  almost  absolute  uniformity. 
The  liver  is  very  frequently  marked  with  punctiform 
whitish  areas."  Sections  show  that  the  areas  of  necrotic 
tissue  are  present  throughtout  the  liver  tissue.  The  blood 
vessels  of  the  liver  are  congested.  According  to  Ward  the 
next  most  striking  lesions  are  found  in  the  reddened  and 
bleeding  mucosa  of  the  first  and  second  folds  of  the  small  in- 
testine (next  to  the  gizzard).  These  reddened  areas  can  even 
be  seen  from  the  outside  of  the  intestine.  The  intestinal  con- 
tents are  either  a  cream  colored  pasty  mass  or  may  be  brown- 
ish or  even  green  in  color.  "  Lesions  are  very  rarely  observed 
in  other  portions  of  the  intestine.  The  ureters  are  noticeable 
in  practically  all  cases  by  reason  of  the  yellow-colored  urates 
that  they  contain.  The  nasal  cavity,  pharynx  and  oral 
cavity  frequently  contain  a  viscous  mucous  fluid,  probably 
regurgitated  from  the  crop." 

Mode  of  Transmission.  —  The  manner  in  which  this  disease 
gains  admission  to  an  apparently  healthy  flock  is  often  a  puz- 

1  Ostertag,  R.,  und  Ackermann,  P.,  "Zeitsclir.  lufektkr.  u.  Hyg. 
Haustr."     Bd.  1,  pp.  431-441,  1906. 

2  Ward,  A.  R.,  "Fowl  Cholera."  Cal.  Agr.  Expt.  Sta.  Bui.  156, 
pp.  3-20,  1904. 


Foiol  Cholera,  Fowl  Typhoid  and  Fowl  Plague      107 

zling  question.  Thus  while  many  epidemics  owe  their  origin 
to  the  importation  of  infected  birds,  birds  returning  from 
poultry  shows,  or  to  the  presence  of  infected  wild  birds,  some 
epidemics  appear  to  arise  spontaneously.  Recently  it  has 
been  found  that  the  causative  organism  is  occasionally 
present  in  the  intestines  of  an  apparently  healthy  bird. 
These  spontaneous  epidemics  are  probably  to  be  explained  as 
due  to  the  increase  in  virulence  of  such  organisms.  After 
passage  through  two  or  three  hens  this  virulence  is  still 
further  increased  so  that  an  epidemic  is  started.  Later  on 
this  same  strain  may  decrease  in  virulence  but  may  remain 
in  the  flock  only  to  break  out  again  a  year  or  two  later. 

Within  the  flock  the  infection  is  generally  transferred 
through  the  food  or  drinking  water  contaminated  with  the 
excrement  of  sick  birds.  It  is  also  possible  for  birds  to  be 
infected  through  wounds  of  the  skin  or  by  inhalation  of  the 
germs  in  the  form  of  dust  suspended  in  the  air.  In  other 
cases  the  dissemination  of  the  disease  is  undoubtedly  due  to 
the  fowls  eating  the  dead  bodies  of  infected  birds. 

Treatment.  —  At  the  present  time  there  is  no  certain  cure 
known  for  fowl  cholera  after  the  bird  has  been  infected. 
While  some  birds  may  recover  of  their  own  accord  it  is  prob- 
able that  such  birds  are  a  source  of  danger  to  the  flock  for 
some  time  afterwards.  INIiiller  ^  states  that  infected  fowls 
continue  giving  off  the  bacteria  in  the  urates  three  weeks 
after  infection,  and  that  the  organs  contained  virulent  mate- 
rial after  a  period  of  six  months. 

Under  ordinary  circumstances,  if  it  is ,  known  that  fowl 
cholera  is  on  the  premises,  every  bird  showing  marked  symp- 
toms of  this  disease  should  be  killed  at  once.  The  birds 
should  be  killed  in  such  a  manner  that  their  blood  will  not 
be  spilled  near  the  houses  or  runs.     Every  drop  of  blood  from 

1  Miiller,  J.,  "Monatsh.  Prakt.  Tierheilk."  Bd.  21,  pp.  385-413, 
1910. 


108  Diseases  uf  Poultry 

an  infected  fowl  contains  thousands  of  these  bacteria  and 
may  serve  to  infect  other  birds.  The  bodies  of  the  birds 
should  be  burned,  or  if  this  is  not  possible  they  should  be 
buried  deeply  so  that  dogs  and  other  animals  will  not  dig 
them  up. 

A  pest  house  should  be  established  as  soon  as  it  is  known 
that  the  disease  is  present.  This  should  be  located  at  some 
distance  from  the  regular  houses.  Every  bird  showing  the 
slightest  symptoms  of  the  disease  should  be  removed  to  this 
house  at  once.  All  the  litter  and  droppings  from  the  regular 
houses  and  runs  should  be  scraped  up  and  burned  and  every- 
thing about  the  place  thoroughly  disinfected.  Spray  the 
houses  with  a  good  disinfectant.  Do  not  use  any  litter  in 
the  houses  unless  a  light  coat  of  sawdust  and  this  should  be 
replaced  by  fresh  every  day.  The  runs  and  yards  should  be 
thoroughly  disinfected  and  should  be  plowed  often. 

If  these  measures  are  carried  out  with  conscientious  at- 
tention to  details  it  is  a  relatively  simple  matter  to  eradicate 
this  disease.  However,  the  disinfection  must  be  kept  up  for 
some  months  after  the  birds  have  ceased  to  die.  Otherwise 
the  infection  may  return. 

In  connection  with  his  work  on  an  outbreak  of  fowl  cholera 
in  California,  Ward  points  out  the  following  important  con- 
clusion :  "  Cholera  and  other  infectious  diseases  may  exist 
in  a  fowl  in  a  sort  of  inactive  chronic  condition  and  there  is  no 
doubt  concerning  the  agency  of  such  a  case  in  spreading  the 
disease.  Thus,  fowls  not  suspected  of  being  diseased  may 
have  the  disease  smoldering  among  them.  The  fact  that 
occasionally  a  single  fowl  dies  of  cholera  means  that  a  severe 
loss  may  occur  at  any  time." 

The  practical  recommendation  for  an  outbreak  of  fowl 
cholera  then  is  to  kill  and  destroy  all  sick  birds,  confine  all 
well  birds  to  small  runs.  Disinfect  these  runs  and  the  houses 
daily.     After  the  outbreak  is  over  and  the  birds  have  ceased 


Fowl  Cholera,  Fowl    Typhoid  and  Fowl  Plague      109 

dying  it  is  best  to  market  all  flocks  in  which  the  cholera 
appeared.  This  latter  precaution  will  often  prevent  a  second 
outbreak  some  months  later. 

Methods  of  prevention  are  always  the  most  satisfactory. 
The  careful  poultryman  will  guard  his  flock  against  all  in- 
fectious diseases  by  methods  of  quarantine,  disinfection  and 
general  cleanliness.  At  the  same  time  the  birds  should  be 
fed  to  keep  them  in  the  best  of  health.  On  these  points  read 
Chapter  II. 

A  large  amount  of  work  has  been  done  upon  remedies  and 
preventives  for  this  disease.  Recently  Hadley  ^  has  rec- 
ommended the  subcutaneous  injections  of  5  per  cent  car- 
bolic acid  as  a  treatment  for  individual  birds.  This  author 
says:  "At  the  Rhode  Island  Station  attempts  have  been 
made  to  prevent  the  development  in  fowls  of  cholera  artifi- 
cially produced  by  inoculation  with  the  fowl  cholera  or- 
ganism. The  protective  inoculations  have  involved  sub- 
cutaneous inoculations  with  a  5  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic 
acid  in  amounts  of  from  2  to  4  c.c.  daily. 

"The  results  thus  far  secured  show  that  the  inoculations 
as  given  protected  artificially  infected  birds,  and  did  no  harm 
to  birds  that  were  in  normal  health.  They  therefore  suggest 
that  subcutaneous  inoculations  with  carbolic  acid  have  a 
protective  and  perhaps  a  therapeutic  value  in  fowl  chol- 
era." 

Much  work  has  also  been  done,  especially  in  Europe,  upon 
methods  of  protective  inoculation  against  this  disease.  The 
best  success  has  been  obtained  by  the  use  of  immune  sera. 
Such  a  serum  is  prepared  by  immunizing  a  large  animal, 
horse  or  cow,  by  repeated  injections  of  this  organism.  The 
serum  from  this  animal  is  then  collected  and  used  to  inoculate 
healthy  birds.     Such  an  immune  serum  gives  a  passive  im- 

1  Hadley,  P.  B.,  "Fowl  Cholera  and  Methods  for  Combating  It." 
Rhode  Island  Agr.  Expt.  Stat.  Bui.  144,  pp.  309-337,  1910. 


110  Diseases  of  Poultry 

munity  to  the  bird  which  will  last  about  IS  days  ^  after  each 
injection.  The  fact  that  such  immunity  is  not  permanent 
renders  it  of  little  value  in  treating  an  infected  flock. 
Lisoff  -  reports  the  use  of  such  a  serum  in  a  large  number  of 
epizootics  (3876  birds)  and  states  that  the  disease  can 
easily  be  held  in  cheek.  As  a  curative  agent  he  says  the 
figures  show  a  reduction  in  mortality  from  90  to  22  per  cent 
where  the  serum  was  used. 

Such  protective  serum  is  largely  used  in  Denmark  and 
other  countries  for  treating  geese  and  other  birds  which  are 
being  shipped  into  the  country. 

Other  methods  of  producing  immunity  against  this  disease 
have  also  been  tried.  These  involve  the  injection  of  dead 
cultures  or  of  living  avirulent  cultures  or  of  the  sterilized 
exudate  obtained  by  injecting  cultures  into  the  pleural  cavi- 
ties of  other  animals.  In  the  main  these  methods  have  not 
proven  very  successful  in  a  practical  way.  For  instance  the 
majority  of  avirulent  cultures  wdll  not  produce  immunity 
against  all  virulent  strains.  This  whole  question  is  now 
being  stuflied  by  the  Rhode  Island  Experiment  Station.^ 

1  Kitt,  T.,  "Monatsh.  Prakt.  Tierheilk."     Bd.  16,  pp.  1-19,  1904. 

2  Lisoff,  P.  W.,  ["Anti-fowl-cholera  Serum  and  Its  Practical 
Significance"].  (Russian)  Vet.  Nauk  (St.  Petersburg),  Bd.  40, 
pp.  804-818,  1910. 

^  For  example  see  : 

Hadley,  P.  B.,  and  Amison,  E.  E.,  "A  Histological  Study  of 
Eleven  Pathogenic  Organisms  from  Cholera-like  Diseases  in  Domes- 
tic Fowls."  Rhode  Island  Agr.  Expt.  Stat.  Bui.  146,  pp.  43-102, 
1911. 

Hadley,  P.  B.,  "The  Role  of  Homologous  Cultures  of  Slight 
Virulence  in  the  Production  of  Active  Immunity  in  Rabbits." 
Rhode  Island  Expt.  Stat.  Bui.  150,  pp.  81-161,  1912. 

"The  Reciprocal  Relations  of  Virulent  and  Avirulent  Cul- 
tures in  Active  Immunization."  Rhode  Island  Expt.  Stat.  Bui. 
159,  pp.  383-403,  1914. 


Fowl  Cholera,  Foiol  Typhoid  and  Fowl  Plague      111 

Fold  Typhoid 

In  1895  Moore  ^  described  a  disease  of  fowls  caused  by  an 
organism  which  he  named  Bacterium  sanguinarium.  He 
called  the  disease  infectious  leukaemia  owing  to  the  fact 
that  it  is  accompanied  by  a  marked  increase  in  the  number 
of  white  blood  corpuscles.  This  disease  is  discussed  in  detail 
in  Chapter  XII. 

At  the  time  of  his  original  description  of  this  disease  Moore 
pointed  out  that  it  was  frequently  mistaken  for  fowl  cholera, 
but  he  called  attention  to  a  number  of  specific  differences 
(see  p.  188).  He  also  says  that  the  organism  causing  this 
disease  closely  resembles  in  its  physiological  properties  Bacil- 
lus typhosis,  the  cause  of  human  typhoid.  In  more  recent 
literature  this  disease  has  frequently  been  called  fowl  ty- 
phoid. Smith  and  Ten  Broeck  ^  have  pointed  out  that  this 
organism  has  many  diagnostic  features  in  common  with  the 
human  typhoid  bacillus.  Even  in  its  agglutination  reactions 
it  closely  resembles  the  typhoid  organism.  The  fowl  or- 
ganism differs  from  the  human,  however,  in  being  non-motile. 

In  spite  of  the  marked  resemblance  the  two  organisms  are 
apparently  distinct.  Mitchell  and  Bloomer  ^  state  that  the 
chicken  is  highly  resistant  to  the  human  typhoid  organism. 
In  the  experiments  reported  the  chickens  failed  either  to 
contract  the  disease  or  to  act  as  a  carrier.  The  experiments 
involved  both  feeding  the  organism  and  injecting  it  intrave- 

1  Moore  V.  A.,  "Infectious  Leukaemia  in  Fowls  —  a  Bacterial 
Disease  Frequently  Mistaken  for  Fowl  Cholera."  U.  S.  Dept. 
of  Agr.  Bur.  of  An.  Ind.  Repts.,  1895  and  1896,  pp.  185-205. 

2  Smith,  T.,  and  Ten  Broeck,  C,  "Agglutination  Affinities  of  a 
Pathogenic  Bacillus  from  Fowls  (fowl  typhoid)  Bacterium  sanguina- 
rium Moore)  with  the  Typhoid  Bacillus  of  Man."  Jour,  of  Medi- 
cal Research,  Vol.  31,  pp.  503-521,  1915. 

^Mitchell,  O.  W.  H.,  and  Bloomer,  G.  T.,  "Experimental  Study 
of  the  Chicken  as  a  Possible  Typhoid  Carrier."  Jour,  of  Medical 
Research,  Vol.  31,  pp.  247-2.50,  1914. 


112  Disea^-cs  of  Poultry 

nously.  These  experiments  are  not  extensive  enough  to  prove 
absohitely  that  chickens  cannot  become  typhoid  carriers. 

Pfeiler  and  Rehse  ^  have  shown  that  while  the  fowl  typhoid 
organism  (which  they  renamed  B.  typhi  gallinarum  alcali- 
faciens)  is  extremely  virulent  for  chickens,  it  does  not  attack 
ducks,  geese  or  pigeons. 

In  another  recent  paper  Smith  and  Ten  Broeck  ^  have 
shown  that  the  fowl  cholera  organism  produces  a  toxin  that 
is  very  poisonous  to  rabbits.  They  suggest  that  possibly 
this  same  organism  may  play  a  part  in  the  food  or  so-called 
ptomaine  poisoning  in  man. 

In  still  another  paper  Smith  and  Ten  Broeck  ^  have  shown 
that  the  fowl  typhoid  organism  shows  many  points  of  re- 
semblance to  Bacillus  pullorum,  the  cause  of  white  diarrhea 
in  young  chicks  (cf.  p.  295).  It  is  only  by  certain  fermenta- 
tion tests  that  the  two  can  be  distinguished. 

A  further  discussion  of  this  disease  together  with  recom- 
mendations for  prevention  are  given  under  infectious  leu- 
kaemia on  pages  186-189. 

Fowl  Plague 

This  disease  is  to  be  sharply  separated  from  fowd  cholera 
with  which  it  is  often  confused.  So  far  as  the  writers  are 
aware  this  disease  has  never  appeared  in  the  United  States. 
It  is  by  no  means  uncommon  in  Europe.     In  spite  of  the  fact 


1  Pfeiler,  W.,  and  Rehse,  A.,  "Bacillus  typhi  gaUinarum  alcali- 
faciens."  Mitt.  Kaiser  Wilhelms  Inst.  f.  Land\\artschaft,  Brom- 
berg,  Bd.  .5,  pp.  306-321,  1913. 

2  Smith,  T.,  and  Ten  Broeck,  C,  "The  Pathogenic  Action  of  the 
Fowl  Typhoid  Bacillus  with  Special  Reference  to  Certain  Toxins." 
Jour,  of  Medical  Research,  Vol.  31,  pp.  .523-546,  191.5. 

3  Smith,  T.,and  Ten  Broeck,  C,  "A  Note  on  the  Relation  between 
B.  -pullorum  (Rettger)  and  the  Fowl  Typhoid  Bacillus  (Moore)." 
Jour,  of  Medical  Research,  Vol.  31,  pp.  547-555,  1915. 


Fowl  Cholera,  Fowl   Typhoid  and  Fowl  Plague      113 

that  considerable  work  has  been  done  upon  fowl  plague,  com- 
paratively little  is  known  about  it.  The  following  notes  are 
gathered  from  such  literature  as  is  at  hand. 

Etiology.  —  No  definite  organism  has  ever  been  isolated  in 
connection  with  this  disease.  Depperich  ^  stated  (1907)  that 
all  the  then  available  evidence  indicated  that  it  is  caused  by 
an  ultra-microscopic,  filterable  virus.  Russ  ^  states  that  the 
blood  from  cases  of  this  disease  is  extremely  virulent,  being 
fatal  when  given  in  such  extreme  dilution  as  1  to  1,000,000,000. 
The  virus  of  this  disease  appears  to  be  in  some  way  attached 
to  or  included  in  the  red  blood  corpuscles.  By  centrifuging 
out  these  corpuscles  it  is  possible  to  remove  a  large  portion 
of  tlie  virus  from  the  blood.  Landsterner  ^  performed  cer- 
tain experiments  which  indicated  that  the  causative  organism 
may  be  a  protozoon  associated  with  the  blood  corpuscles. 
In  this  respect  the  causative  factor  in  the  disease  appears  to 
show  some  resemblance  to  the  filterable  virus  of  hog-cholera, 
according  to  recent  work.^ 

Diagnosis.  —  Fowl  plague  is  known  to  affect  chickens,  tur- 
keys, guinea-fowl,  geese,  pheasants,  and  many  wild  birds. 
The  lesions  of  the  disease  resemble  those  produced  by  phos- 
phorous poisoning.^  The  surface  of  the  heart  may  be  covered 
with  small  blood  clots  (ecchymoses) .  It  can  be  distinguished 
from  fowl  cholera  by  the  presence  of  hemorrhages  under  the 
epicardium  and  an  exudate  in  the  pericardial  cavity. 


1  Depperich,  C.  H.,  Fortsch.  Vet.  Hyg.  Bd.  4,  pp.  217-250, 
1907. 

2  Russ,  V.  K.,  Arch.  Hyg.     Bd.  59,  pp.  286-312,  1906. 

5  Landsterner,  K.,  Centralb.  f.  Bakt.,  etc.,  Abt.  1,  Bd.  38,  pp. 
540-542,  1906. 

*  For  example : 

King,  W.  E.,  and  Hoffman,  G.  L.,  "Studies  on  Hog  Cholera  — 
Spirochoeta  suis.  Its  Significance  as  a  Pathogenic  Organism." 
Jour.  Infec.  Dis.,  Vol.  13,  pp.  463-498,  1913. 

5  Freese,  Dent.  Tierarztl.  Wchnschr.     Bd.  16,  pp.  173-177,  1908. 


114  Disefu^es  of  Poultry 

Marchoux  ^  claims  to  have  shown  that  the  virus  is  not 
transmitted  through  the  feces  but  that  it  is  probably  trans- 
mitted by  some  mite  or  tick.  Expernnents  by  others  have 
failed  to  prove  definitely  that  it  is  transmitted  by  such 
parasites. 

Several  investigators  have  called  attention  to  an  apparent 
relationship  between  this  disease  and  rabies.  Rosenthal 
states  that  subdural  inoculation  of  fowls  with  the  virus  of 
this  disease  produces  death  with  violent  symptoms  resem- 
bling rabies.  Schiffmann  ^  states  that  in  the  cerebrum  of 
artificially  inoculated  geese  certain  corpuscles  are  found 
which  in  some  respects  resemble  the  Negri  bodies  of  rabies. 
The  two,  however,  are  not  identical. 

Control.  —  The  methods  for  the  control  of  this  disease  must 
be  similar  to  those  of  cholera.  Sick  birds  must  be  isolated  or 
killed  and  great  care  taken  that  the  blood  of  infected  birds  is 
not  spilled  in  the  houses  or  yards. 

»  Marchoux,  E.,  Compt.  Rendus  Soc.  Biol.  T.  68,  pp.  346-347, 
1910. 

2  Schiffmann,  J.,  Centbl.  f.  Bakl.,  etc.  Abt.  1,  Bd.  45,  pp.  393- 
403,  1907. 


CHAPTER   IX 

Tuberculosis 

Tuberculosis  in  fowls  lias  long  been  a  serious  pest  in 
Euorpe.  Ziirn  in  his  "Krankheiten  des  Hausgefliigels," 
published  in  1882,  devotes  several  pages  to  the  description 
of  this  disease  as  it  occurred  in  Germany.  Its  appearance  in 
this  country,  however,  seems  to  have  been  much  more  recent. 

Salmon,  whose  book  was  published  about  1888,  says  that 
the  disease  "  is  by  no  means  rare  in  the  United  States  if  the 
statements  of  our  professional  men  are  to  be  accepted." 
However,  at  that  time  very  little  had  been  done  in  the  way  of 
bacteriological  diagnosis  and  no  doubt  many  of  the  early 
reports  were  unreliable. 

The  disease  was  first  reported  on  the  basis  of  bacterio- 
logical examination  in  1900  by  Pernot.^  In  1903  Moore 
and  Ward "  reported  investigations  on  avian  tuberculosis  in 
California.  They  found  "a  number  of  flocks  in  which  the 
mortality  from  the  disease  was  very  high."  Fowl  tuber- 
culosis was  reported  from  western  and  central  Canada  in 
1904  by  Dr.  C.  H.  Higgins.^  In  1906  it  was  reported  from 
New   York   and    in    1907   from    southern   Michigan.     The 

1  Pernot,  "Investigation  of  Disease  of  Poultry."  Oregon  Agr. 
Expt.  Stat.  Bui.  64,  1900. 

2  Moore,  V.  A.,  and  Ward,  A.,  "Avian  Tuberculosis."  Proc. 
Am.  Vet.  Med.  Assoc,  St.  Paul,  1903. 

'  Higgins,  C.  H.,   "Report  of  Veterinary  Director  General  for 
1905."     Dept.  of  Agr.,  Canada,  Ottawa,  1906. 
115 


116  Diseases  of  Poultry 

disease  has  been  reported  in  many  other  places  within  the 
last  few  years.  It  thus  seems  certain  that  the  disease  is 
widespread  throughout  the  United  States  and  Canada  and 
in  the  future  must  be  reckoned  with  by  American  poultry- 
men. 

Tuberculosis  may  exist  extensively  among  fowls,  especially 
in  large  flocks,  and  yet  not  kill  enough  birds  to  attract 
attention  to  it.  Reports  show  that  farmers  often  lose  one  or 
two  birds  a  year  from  what  appears  to  be  tuberculosis.  In 
many  places  the  loss  seems  to  be  gradually  increasing.  The 
existence  of  the  disease  in  the  flock  fails  to  attract  the  atten- 
tion of  the  owner  because  the  losses  are  so  evenly  distributed 
throughout  the  year.  In  other  cases  the  disease  appears  to 
be  more  virulent  and  to  cause  very  serious  losses.  Moore 
and  Ward  report  a  flock  of  1400  birds  from  which  250  had 
died  during  the  first  year.  Another  man  lost  300  birds  out 
of  a  flock  of  1460.  Microscopic  examination  proved  that 
these  were  dying  of  tuberculosis. 

Tuberculosis  is  confined  chiefiy  to  adult  or  nearly  adult 
fowls.  Only  very  rarely,  if  ever,  is  it  found  in  growing  chicks. 
Further  it  is  much  more  common  in  fowls  than  in  other  kinds 
of  poultry.  Two  cases  in  wild  geese  were  reported  at  the 
Ontario  Agricultural  College.  Avian  tuberculosis  is  said 
to  be  found  in  turkeys,  pheasants,  and  especially  in  pigeons. 
Cage  birds  are  particularly  susceptible  to  this  disease. 

Etiology.  —  Tuberculosis  is  caused  by  a  minute  germ, 
the  Bacillus  tuberculosis  of  birds.  These  bacteria  gain 
entrance  to  certain  portions  of  the  body  and  there  multiply 
in  vast  numbers,  causing  the  formation  of  small  nodules  or 
tubercles.  The  disease  is  highly  contagious  and  is  spread 
through  the  flock  by  the  contact  of  healthy  birds  with  the 
diseased  ones,  or  with  their  discharges. 

The  relation  of  avian  tuberculosis  to  that  of  man  and  other 
animals  has  attracted  a  great  deal  of  attention.     It  is  a 


Tuberculosis 


117 


subject  of  very  great  importance  to  the  poultryman,  not 
only  on  account  of  his  flock  but  also  on  account  of  its  relation 
to  the  health  of  himself  and  his  family.  The  bacillus  asso- 
ciated with  avian  tuberculosis  presents  certain  morphological 


Fig.  11.  —  Section  of  the  lung  of  a  hen  showing  tubercle  bacilli.     (After 
Himmelberger.) 


and  physiological  characteristics  which  are  diflferent  from  the 
organism  associated  with  this  disease  in  man.  Likewise  the 
bacillus  of  human  tuberculosis  is  differentiated  in  certain 
marked  features  from  that  found  in  cattle.     On  the  whole 


118  Diseases  of  Poultry 

the  difference  between  the  avian  and  the  other  two  types  is 
much  greater  than  that  between  the  human  and  the  bovine. 

It  has  frequently  been  held  that  the  avian  bacillus  is  a 
distinct  species.  The  chief  reason  for  this  is  that  it  often 
fails  to  produce  disease  when  inoculated  into  mammals 
and  because  the  mammalian  type  will  not  always  infect  birds. 
At  the  present  time  the  view  is  rather  generally  accepted 
that  the  avian,  human  and  bovine  types  simply  represent 
three  varieties  or  strains  of  the  same  species.  A  large  amount 
of  work  has  been  done  upon  this  subject,  and  while  under 
ordinary  conditions  the  avian  bacillus  does  not  infect  mam- 
mals, under  certain  conditions  it  will  do  so. 

Bang,^  who  has  done  a  great  amount  of  work  upon  this 
subject,  found  that  mammalian  bacilli  by  passage  through 
fowls  can  be  so  changed  as  to  behave  like  the  avian  type,  and 
further  that  bovine  bacilli  after  having  lost  their  virulence 
for  guinea  pigs  through  repeated  passage  through  fowls  are 
able  to  regain  the  original  virulence  by  passage  through 
mammals.  Of  eighteen  different  strains  of  mammalian 
tubercle  bacilli  used  Bang  found  that  twelve  could  be  made 
virulent  for  fowls.  He  states,  however,  that  in  his  experi- 
ence mammalian  bacilli  were  never  found  in  spontaneous 
avian  tuberculosis. 

The  avian  tubercle  bacilli  are  very  virulent  to  most  birds 
and  especially  to  domesticated  species.  Artificial  infection 
succeeds  best  by  direct  inoculation  into  a  vein,  while  in- 
traperitoneal and  subcutaneous  injections  are  apt  to  yield 
less  certain  results.  By  feeding  either  cultures  or  fresh 
material  from  tuberculous  birds  the  disease  is  readily  trans- 


1  Bang,  Oluf,  "Die  Tuberculose  der  Gefliigels  in  ihren  Bezie- 
hungen  zur  Tuberculose  der  Saugethieren."  Trans.  IX  Intern.,  Vet. 
Cong.,  Vol.  1,  1909. 

' '  Gefliigeltubereulose  und  Saugetiertuberculose. ' '     Ceniralh. 

f.  Bakt.  Paras,  u.  Infekt.,  Bd.  XLVI,  1908. 


Tuberculosis  119 

mitted.  The  fresh  material  has  usually  proven  to  be  the 
most  virulent.  Van  Es  and  Schalk  ^  report  that  of  12  Eng- 
lish sparrows  each  fed  one  meal  of  chopped  tuberculous 
chicken  liver  all  died  in  from  73  to  202  days  with  generalized 
tuberculosis.  It  is  quite  probable  that  the  English  sparrow 
often  serves  to  infect  domestic  fowls. 

Koch  and  Rabinowitsch  -  state  that  while  fowls  are  easily 
infected  with  avian  tuberculosis  by  feeding,  it  is  very  difficult 
to  infect  them  with  the  mammalian  strains  in  the  same  way. 
On  the  other  hand,  some  birds,  especially  cage  birds,  are 
very  readily  infected  in  various  ways.  Parrots,  in  particular, 
are  susceptible  not  only  to  avian  tuberculosis,  but  also  to 
mammalian  and  human  tuberculosis.  Also  canary  birds, 
sparrows,  and  various  birds  of  prey  w^re  proven  to  be  sus- 
ceptible to  both  avian  and  mammalian  tuberculosis.  In  these 
respects  such  birds  differ  materially  from  the  domestic  fowls. 

On  the  other  hand  their  later  researches  have  made  it 
apparent  that  a  large  number  of  mammals  are  susceptible  to 
avian  tuberculosis.  These  include  not  only  the  small 
laboratory  animals  as  rabbits,  mice  and  guinea  pigs,  but  also 
cattle,  hogs,  horses,  goats,  and  donkeys.  Also  avian  tubercle 
bacilli  have  been  found  in  cases  of  human  tuberculosis. 

Himmelberger  "^  reports  experiments  in  which  it  was 
possible  to  infect  a  calf  by  feeding  it  the  macerated  organs  of 
a  tuberculous  hen.  This  result  is  of  considerable  interest  in 
view  of  the  question  of  the  relation  of  the  avian  tubercle 
bacillus  to  the  causative  factor  in  Johne's  disease  of  cattle. 
Johne's  disease  presents  many  of  the  symptoms  of  tuber- 

1  Van  Es,  L.,  and  Schalk,  A.  F.,  "A\aan  Tuberculosis."  North 
Dakota  Agr.  Expt.  Stat.  Bui.  108,  pp.  1-94,  1914. 

-  Koch,  R.,  and  Rabinowitsch,  L.,  "Die  Tuberculose  der  Vogel 
und  ihre  Beziehungen  an  Saugetiertuberculose."  Arbeiten  a.  d. 
Kaiserl.     Gesundheitsamte,  1904. 

•'  Himmelberger,  L.  R.,  Cenlralb.  f.  Bakt.  etc.  Abt.  1,  Bd.  73, 
pp.  1-11,  1914. 


120  Disea.ses  of  Poultry 

culosis  in  cattle,  yet  usually  such  cattle  do  not  react  to  the 
ordinary  tuberculin  test.  However,  it  has  been  found  that  in 
a  considerable  number  of  cases  of  this  disease  the  animals 
will  react  if  tested  with  a  tuberculin  made  from  the  avian 
bacillus.  The  majority  of  experimenters  have  reported 
negative  results  in  their  attempts  to  infect  cattle  with  the 
avian  organism.  The  question  is  one  which  must  await 
further  evidence  before  definite  conclusions  can  be  drawn. 

On  the  basis  of  such  experiments  and  observation  it 
appears  that  the  difference  between  avian  and  mammalian 
tuberculosis  has  developed  because  the  bacilli  have  grown 
for  a  long  time  under  different  conditions.  They  are  not  so 
different,  however,  but  that  each  may  grow  in  the  environ- 
ment best  suited  to  the  other. 

It  thus  appears  that  lohile  jowls  are  not  very  likely  to  contract 
tuberculosis  from  domestic  animals  or  from  man,  yet  fowls  that 
have  the  diseases  are  a  serious  menace  to  the  other  animals  on 
the  farm  as  well  as  to  the  poultryman  and  his  family.  (Cf. 
further  on  this  point  p.  128  below.) 

Diagnosis.  —  Tuberculosis  in  mankind  is  so  serious  a 
disease  chiefly  because  it  is  so  difficult  to  recognize  it  in  its 
earliest  stages.  The  same  is  true  with  the  disease  in  fowls. 
There  are  positively  no  external  symptoms  by  which  the 
disease  can  be  recognized  in  fowls  before  the  advanced  stages. 
Some  of  the  outward  symptoms  that  may  serve  to  arouse 
suspicion  are :  steadily  advancing  emaciation ;  anaemia, 
shown  by  pallor  of  comb,  wattles  and  the  skin  about  the 
head  ;  general  w^eakness  ;  lameness ;  ruffling  of  the  feathers, 
and  in  many  cases  diarrhea.  These  combined  with  a  bright 
eye  and  a  ravenous  appetite  are  some  of  the  symptoms  most 
frequently  found.  None  of  them  is  specific,  however,  and 
final  diagnosis  must  be  based  on  other  findings.  Emaciation 
is  one  of  the  best  symptoms  and  in  the  last  stages  of  the  dis- 
ease becomes  very  marked.     Pernot  cites  the  case  of  a  Plym- 


Tuberculosis 


121 


outh  Rock  hen  weigh- 
ing 4  pounds  that  was 
reduced  to  22  ounces. 
The  emaciation  is  very- 
marked  in  the  muscles 
covering  the  breast- 
bone. 

Lameness  is  another 
symptom  often  shown 
in  the  later  stages  of 
the  disease.  This  is 
caused  by  tuberculosis 
of  the  joints,  as  has 
been  proven  in  many 
cases.  Such  cases  are 
often  called  "rheuma- 
tism" by  poultrymen. 
Tuberculosis  may  also 
form  tumors  or  ulcers 
or  various  outgrowths 
on  the  head  and  limbs 
of  birds.  Such  forms 
of  the  disease  are  com- 
paratively rare  in  poul- 
trj^,  however.  Parrots 
are  particularly  af- 
fected with  these  ex- 
ternal tubercles. 

None  of  these  symp- 
toms, however,  is  more 
than  an  indication  of 
the  possible  presence 
of  the  disease. 

Post-mortem      find- 


122 


Diseases  of  Poultry 


ings  give  much  more  certain  evidence  of  the  existence  of  this 
disease.     The  tubercle  is  the  unit  of  all  tuberculous  lesions. 


Fig.   13 


ver  of  fowl  affected  with  tuberculosis.      (After  Ward.) 


The  tubercles  in  avian  tuberculosis  are  not  essentially  differ- 
ent from  those  found  in  mammalian  forms  of  the  disease. 
These  tubercles  appear  as  small 
raised  nodules  jBUed  with  a 
cheesy  substance. 

In  birds  the  organs  most  af- 
fected are  the  liver,  spleen  and 
intestinal  tract.  In  some  in- 
stances nearly  every  organ, 
including  kidneys,  ovaries, 
lungs,  bones,  muscles  and  skin, 
is  affected.  Statistics  collected 
show  that  in  from  90  to  99 
per  cent  of  cases  the  liver  shows  tubercular  lesions  (Fig. 
13).     In  from   85  to  90  per  cent   the   spleen  is   affected 


Fig.  14.  —  Spleen  from  tubercu- 
lous fowl  cut  through  the  mid- 
dle. (After  Koch  and  Rabino- 
witsch.) 


Tuberculosis 


124 


Diseases  of  Poulfri/ 


Fig.   16.  —  Intestine  and  mesenteries  of  a  fowl  affected  with  tuberculosis. 
(After  Ward.) 


(Fig.  14)  and  in  from  50  to  60  per  cent  of  the  cases  tubercles 

are  found  in  the  intestines  and  mesenteries  (Figs.  15  and  16). 

Thus  the  Hver  is  affected  in  nearly  every  case.     However, 


Tuberculosis  125 

as  has  been  pointed  out  many  times  in  these  pages,  a  spotted 
condition  of  the  Uver  is  no  sure  sign  of  tuberculosis.  Most  of 
the  other  liver  diseases  of  fowls  cause  a  simple  blotching  of 
the  tissue  in  which  the  center  of  each  spot  is  usually  depressed 
or  at  least  only  slightly  raised  (cf.  Fig.  9,  p.  95).  In 
tuberculosis  the  liver  is  covered  with  numerous  raised  nodules 
varying  greatly  in  number  and  size  as  shown  in  Fig.  13. 
A  section  of  the  liver  shows  these  nodules  or  tubercles  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  tissue. 

Still  more  conclusive  evidence  is  found  if  the  spleen  is 
covered  with  these  same  kind  of  nodules.  The  spleen  in 
health  is  a  small  rounded  purplish  organ  about  h  inch  in 
diameter.  It  lies  just  above  the  liver  in  the  region  of  the 
gall  bladder.  (Cf.  Fig.  7).  In  cases  of  tuberculosis  it  is 
very  frequently  greatly  enlarged  and  is  studded  throughout 
with  the  yellowish-white  tubercles  as  shown  in  Fig.  14. 

The  lungs  are  rarely  affected  and  then  usually  by  the  infec- 
tion spreading  from  the  liver  on  to  the  adjoining  lung  tissue. 
All  this  agrees  with  the  fact  previously  stated  that  fowls  are 
most  easily  infected  through  the  digestive  tract. 

If  the  post-mortem  findings  agree  in  essentials  with  those 
given  in  the  preceding  paragraphs  we  may  be  practically 
certain  that  we  are  dealing  with  tuberculosis.  It  should  not 
be  forgotten,  however,  that  the  pathologist  would  not  be 
willing  to  pronounce  the  disease  tuberculosis  until  he  had 
taken  a  small  particle  of  the  cheesy  material  and  after  stain- 
ing this  in  a  particular  way  had  demonstrated  by  microscop- 
ical examination  that  the  tubercule  bacilli  were  present. 

Some  recent  experiments  hold  out  the  hope  that  means 
will  be  found  for  the  accurate  diagnosis  of  this  disease  by 
means  of  some  of  the  biological  and  serological  tests.  Van 
Es  ^  and  Van  Es  and  Schalk  ^  have  carried  out  careful  experi- 

1  Van  Es,  L.,  Zeitschr.  f.  Infekiionskrank.  u.  Hyg.  Haust.  Bd. 
14,  pp.  271-296,  1913.  2  Loc.  cit. 


126 


Diseases  of  Poult ry 


ments    with    tuberculin    prepared    from    the    avian    bacilH. 

These  authors  injected  this  tubercuhn  within  the  layers  of 
the  skin  (intracutaneous)  in  the  comb  and 
wattles.  The  results  indicate  that  this 
method  is  reasonably  satisfactory.  Sum- 
marizing the  results  of  their  tests  on  601 
birds,  these  authors  found  that  98  per  cent 
of  the  birds  showing  tuberculous  lesions 
reacted  to  the  test.  Only  8  per  cent  of  the 
non-reacting  birds  showed  lesions.  Numer- 
ous previous  investigators  had  obtained 
negative  results  with  the  subcutaneous, 
ophthalmic  and  cutaneous  method  of  ap- 
plication. It  appears  that  for  birds  the 
intracutaneous  method  is  the  only  one  to 
be  considered  of  value. 

Technique  of  making  the  injection  is  very 
important  according  to  Van  Es  and  Schalk. 
Care  must  be  taken  that  the  injection  is 
neither  too  deep  nor  too  superficial.  A  small 
caliber  syringe  with  a  very  fine  needle  (No. 
26  or  27)  is  used. 

Owing  to  the  denseness  of  the  tissues, 
especially  the  comb,  it  is  often  difficult  to 
inject  even  a  small  quantity,  and  consider- 
able pressure  is  required  to  force  the  tu- 
berculin   into    the    tissues.      The    amount 

Fig.  17.  — Syringe  injected  into  each  bird  was  not  carefully 
bercuiin  tes^t  for  measured  but  varied  between  3^  and  2V  of  a 
chickens.  (Af-  cubic  centimeter  of  a  50  per  cent  avian  tuber- 
sdilk')  ^'  ""''"^  ^"^"^-     This  tuberculin  was  prepared  in  the 

usual  way. 
Owing  to  its  looser  texture  the  wattle  proved  to  be  the 

best  place  for  the  injection.     The  results  of  the  tests  were 


Tuberciilo.sis 


IZ 


recorded  24,  48  and  72  hours  after  the  injection.     A  positive 
reaction  is  indicated  in  a  typical  case  by  a  lar£>;e  swelHng 


Fig. 


18.  —  Head  of  chicken  showing  positive  tuberculin  reaction  of  comb 
and  right  wattle.     (After  Van  Es  and  Schalk.) 


about  the  point  of  injection.     In  the  wattle  this  organ  often 
becomes  two  to  three  times  its  original  thickness. 

Agglutination  and  complement  fixation  tests  have  also 
been  used  to  diagnose  this  disease.^     The  tests  so  far  re- 

1  Himmelberger,  L.  G.,  loc.  cit. 


128  Diseases  of  Poultry 

ported,  while  encouraging,  are  too  few  to  allow  of  definite 
conclusions. 

Methods  of  Contagion.  —  The  spread  of  tuberculosis  from 
fowl  to  fowl  takes  place  only  when  the  living  bacteria  are 
transferred  from  the  diseased  to  the  healthy  birds.  From 
the  fact  that  tuberculosis  lesions  are  most  commonly  found  in 
the  internal  organs  of  the  digestive  system  we  may  conclude 
that  the  bacteria  usually  enter  the  body  along  with  the  food. 
Examination  of  the  tubercles  situated  along  the  intestine 
shows  that  in  many  cases  these  communicate  directly  with 
the  interior  of  the  digestive  tract.  These  are  constantly 
emptying  enormous  numbers  of  bacteria  which  are  carried  to 
the  outside  by  the  feces  of  the  bird.  Without  doubt  the 
droppings  of  tuberculous  fowls  are  the  most  important  factor 
in  the  spread  of  this  disease.  This  is  especially  true  when  in 
addition  the  birds  are  fed  upon  ground  which  is  partly 
covered  with  these  droppings.  Besides,  the  infectious 
material  may  very  easily  be  carried  by  the  feet  and  thus 
mixed  with  the  food. 

Ward  states  that  there  is  no  evidence  to  indicate  that 
tuberculosis  is  spread  through  the  egg.  He  cites  in  support 
of  this  first  the  fact  that  badly  diseased  birds  do  not  lay,  and 
second  the  absence  of  tuberculosis  among  young  stock. 
Other  authors,  however,  have  collected  statistics  which 
indicate  that  even  birds  badly  diseased  with  tuberculosis 
may  continue  to  lay  quite  steadily. 

Koch  and  Rabinowitsch  also  make  the  following  statement 
(p.  431) :  "The  possibility  of  the  congenital  origin  of  tuber- 
culosis of  fowls  through  the  infection  of  the  fertilized  egg  with 
bird  tuberculosis  is  shown  by  our  results.  It  is  also  demon- 
strated by  our  inoculation  experiments  on  eggs."  Further 
they  have  given  experimental  proof  of  the  transfer  of  tlie 
bacteria  of  mammalian  tuberculosis  from  the  inoculated  egg 
to  the  chick. 


Tuberculosis  129 

Lowenstein  ^  states  that  avian  tuberculosis  occurs  more 
frequently  in  man  than  is  usually  supposed  and  that  it  may 
be  due  to  eating  eggs  from  tuberculosis  hens.  Artificially 
infected  eggs  still  contain  living  organisms  after  having  been 
soft  boiled. 

In  this  connection  it  is  of  interest  to  mention  a  case  of  the 
apparent  transfer  of  fowl  tuberculosis  to  man.  In  the 
Medical  Record  (Vol.  31,  1887)  there  is  recorded  a  case  of 
human  tuberculosis  in  France  which  apparently  came  from 
eating  tuberculous  fowls  which  "were  cooked  very  little 
before  being  eaten."  The  case  occurred  "in  a  little  hamlet 
of  10  cottages  isolated  in  the  midst  of  a  large  forest."  No 
other  source  of  infection  could  be  discovered. 

Treatment.  —  Fowl  tuberculosis  when  it  reaches  the  stage 
at  which  it  can  be  diagnosed  cannot  be  cured  under  our  pres- 
ent knowledge.  Treatment  of  individual  cases  should  not  be 
attempted.  Salmon  -  says  :  "  When  the  disease  is  discovered 
the  effort  should  be  to  eradicate  it  at  once  by  killing  off  the 
whole  flock  and  thoroughly  disinfecting  all  the  houses  and  runs. 

"As  the  great  majority  of  the  birds  will  probably  be  more 
or  less  affected,  the  chances  are  that  any  which  are  saved  will 
have  diseased  livers  and  intestines,  from  which  the  bacilli 
will  escape  and  keep  up  the  infection  of  the  flock  and  the 
runs.  The  danger  of  this  is  so  great  that  no  attempt  should 
be  made  to  keep  any  of  the  fowls  that  have  been  exposed  to 
the  contagion,  no  matter  how  valuable  they  may  be.  The 
bodies  of  the  birds  which  have  died  or  are  killed,  as  well  as 
all  the  accumulated  manure,  sweepings,  and  scrapings  of  the 
poultry  houses,  should  be  completely  destroyed  by  fire." 


1  Lowenstein,  E.,  "Ueber  das  Vorkommen  von  Gefliigeltuber- 
culosis  beiin  Mensehen."  Wiener  Klin.  Wochenschrift,  Bd.  26,  pp. 
785-787,  1913. 

2  Salmon,  D.  E.,  "Important  Poultry  Diseases."  U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agr.  Farmers'  Bui.  530,  1913. 


130  Diseases  of  Poultry 

The  above  recommendations,  while  drastic,  will  probably 
prove  the  wisest  in  the  long  run.  There  are,  however,  some- 
times mitigating  circumstances  under  which  it  would  not  be 
advisable  to  do  this.  If  it  is  known  that  the  disease  has 
recently  been  introduced  or  that  it  is  not  very  widely  spread 
through  the  flock  all  of  the  old  stock  should  be  removed  and 
killed  for  table  purposes,  providing  their  condition  permits. 
Van  Es  and  Schalk  have  shown  that  it  is  the  older  birds  that 
furnish  the  higher  percentage  of  actual  disease.  Their 
autopsy  records  show  the  following : 


Age  op  Bird 


Per  Cent  op  Infected  Birds 


3.33 
24.35 
86.44 
85.71 


Van  Es  and  Schalk  recommend  that  "After  the  elimina- 
tion of  the  older  birds  the  remainder  of  the  flock  may  be 
tuberculin  tested  and  all  fowls  reacting  typically  or  doubt- 
fully should  share  the  same  fate  as  the  older  birds." 

After  the  diseased  birds  have  been  disposed  of  the  houses, 
runs,  eating  and  drinking  utensils  should  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  and  disinfected.  Everything  loose  should  be  burned. 
The  disinfecting  so  far  as  possible  should  be  done  by  boiling 
and  by  sunlight.  IVIost  of  the  common  disinfectants  cannot 
be  relied  upon  to  kill  the  tubercle  bacilli.  Heat  and  sun- 
light are  very  eftective  wherever  they  can  be  applied  directly. 
The  runs  should  be  cultivated  and  the  houses  should  be 
open  to  the  sunshine  and  fresh  air  at  all  times. 

Van  Es  and  Schalk  report  a  flock  which  at  the  beginning  of 
1913  had  249  chickens.  Of  these  43.37  per  cent  were  found  to 
be  tuberculous  by  the  tuberculin  test  and  autopsy.    All  react- 


Tuberculosis  131 

ing  and  undesirable  birds  were  eliminated,  leaving  56  non- 
reacting  fowls  to  which  47  were  added  by  purchase.  One 
year  later  a  similar  test  of  this  flock,  which  had  again  in- 
creased to  249  birds,  showed  only  2.41  per  cent  tuberculous. 
It  would  seem  that  the  measures  reported  might  hold  out 
hope  that  in  slightly  infected  flocks  the  disease  may  be 
eliminated. 

In  the  majority  of  cases,  however,  the  cost  of  administering 
the  tuberculin,  which  would  have  to  be  done  by  an  experi- 
enced veterinarian,  would  be  more  than  the  birds  were 
worth.  In  such  cases  it  will  probably  be  best  to  kill  off  the 
old  stock  and  after  thoroughly  cleaning  and  disinfecting 
start  new  with  stock  known  to  be  healthy. 

If  it  is  particularly  desired  to  maintain  the  same  strain  of 
birds  it  might  be  done  by  adopting  a  method  similar  to  that 
proposed  by  Bang  for  new  herd  building  in  the  case  of  tuber- 
culous cattle.  Directions  for  doing  this  are  given  by  Morse  ^ 
as  follows : 

"Secure  new  or  thoroughly  disinfected  ground,  keeping 
it  absolutely  free  from  contact  with  the  ground  used  by  the 
infected  flock.  Erect  new  houses  on  this  ground.  Collect 
the  eggs  from  the  infected  birds  and  wash  them  in  95  per  cent 
alcohol  or  in  a  4  per  cent  solution  of  some  good  coal  tar 
disinfectant.  Incubate  these  disinfected  eggs  in  new  incuba- 
tors. When  hatched,  remove  the  chicks  to  new  brooder 
houses  on  the  new  ground.  These  growing  chicks  should  be 
cared  for  by  new  men,  that  is  to  say,  either  different  men 
from  those  that  care  for  the  old  flock,  or  if  you  are  compelled 
to  use  the  same  men  they  should  disinfect  their  hands  and 
shoes  and  put  on  fresh  overalls  before  handling  the  new 
stock.  Have  different  feed  bins  and  dift'erent  pails  for 
distributing  it.     As  soon  as  you  have  built  up  a  clean  flock 

^Reliable  Poullnj  Journal,  1910. 


132  Diseases  of  Poultry 

destroy  the  old  and  disinfect  the  ground  occupied  by  them 
by  the  method  outlined  above." 

This  method  is,  no  doubt,  excellent  in  theory  and  if  carried 
out  with  complete  and  never-failing  attention  to  details 
might  work.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether  in  actual 
practice  a  poultryman  would  ever  be  able  to  carry  it  through 
successfully  or  profitably. 


CHAPTER   X 

Internal  Parasites 

Fowls  are  often  seriously  infested  with  internal  parasites. 
The  most  important  of  these  are  various  worms  living  in  the 
alimentary  canal.  In  popular  usage  these  are  spoken  of 
simply  as  "worms."  Various  other  internal  parasites,  as 
the  gape  worm,  the  air-sac  mite,  etc.,  are  described  in  other 
sections  of  this  book.  In  the  main  the  present  discussion 
will  be  confined  to  intestinal  worms. 

Few  flocks  of  poultry  or  indeed  few  birds  could  be  found 
which  are  free  from  intestinal  worms.  Worms  of  one  kind 
or  another  are  found  in  the  intestinal  tracts  of  practically 
all  fowls.  Under  ordinary  conditions  these  parasites  do  no 
very  serious  harm.  Undoubtedly  the  bird  would  be  better 
off  without  them  but  they  are  not  serious  enough  to  be  worth 
troubling  about.  Under  certain  conditions,  however,  these 
parasites  may  multiply  to  such  an  extent  that  they  become 
a  serious  menace  to  the  flock.  There  are  several  cases  on 
record  in  recent  years  where  epidemics  of  worms  have  put 
whole  poultry  plants  out  of  business. 

Worms  are  spread  from  bird  to  bird  usually  through  the 
excrement.  The  worms  or  their  eggs  are  expelled  by  one 
bird  and  are  picked  up  along  with  food  and  grit  by  another. 
Some  forms  are  taken  in  with  the  drinking  water,  especially 
where  fowls  are  allowed  to  drink  from  stagnant  pools. 
Still  other  forms,  like  the  tape  worms,  require  an  intermediate 
host  such  as  an  angleworm,  snail,  or  insect. 
133 


134  Diseases  of  Poultry 

Diagnosis  of  Worms  in  General.  —  Accurate  diagnosis  of 
worms  in  the  intestines  can  be  made  only  by  finding  the 
worms  in  the  droppings  of  the  fowls.  Fowls  affected  with 
worms  to  any  great  extent  frequently  show  the  general 
symptoms  of  dullness  and  depression.  Birds  that  are  sus- 
pected of  being  affected  with  worms  should  be  shut  up  in  a 
coop  and  given  a  dose  of  some  vermifuge  or  a  purgative  dose 
of  Epsom  salts.  If  careful  observation  of  the  droppings  is 
made  at  frequent  intervals  the  worms,  if  present,  can  usually 
be  detected  in  this  way.  This  is  not,  however,  an  infallible 
test. 

If  there  is  any  reason  to  suspect  that  worms  are  present 
in  the  flock  one  or  two  birds  showing  the  most  advanced 
symptoms  should  be  killed  and  examined.  The  entire 
digestive  tract  should  be  opened  and  the  contents  carefully 
examined.  The  intestines  should  be  washed  out  in  a  gentle 
stream  of  water  and  their  walls  examined  after  immersing  in 
a  pan  of  water.  If  tape  worms  or  other  parasites  which  are 
attached  to  wall  are  present  these  can  be  seen  readily  under 
water.  In  case  there  is  any  doubt  a  competent  veterinarian 
should  be  consulted,  or  a  bird  may  be  sent  to  the  Zoological 
Division  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.C.  In 
this  way  the  worms  will  be  identified  and  any  specific  remedies 
will  be  recommended. 

The  principal  parasitic  worms  which  affect  the  digestive 
tract  of  fowls  may  be  grouped  into  three  classes  as  follows : 
Tape  worms,  round  worms  and  flukes. 

Tape  JJ^orms 

Tape  worms  have  long  been  known  to  infest  domestic 
poultry.  Occasionally  serious  outbreaks  of  the  tape  worm 
disease  occur  in  various  parts  of  the  country.     These  out- 


Internal  Parasites 


135 


breaks  are  usually  confined  to  comparatively  small  areas  and 
are  perhaps  more  common  in  the  southern  states. 

Etiology.  —  The  tape  worms  of  poultry,  like  those  which 
infest  man  and  the  domestic 
animals,  are  long,  flat^  segmented 
worms  (Fig.  19).  The  anterior 
end  of  the  animal  possesses  a 
number  of  hooks  or  suckers  by 
which  it  attaches  itself  to  the  walls 
of  the  intestine.  Back  of  this 
head  the  entire  animal  consists 
of  a  long  series  of  segments  or 
proglottids.  The  segments  near- 
est the  head  are  the  smallest  and 
it  is  at  this  region  that  new 
segments  are  constantly  being 
formed.  The  farther  from  the 
head  they  get  the  larger  the  seg- 
ments become.  Towards  the  pos- 
terior end  of  the  worm  the  seg- 
ments develop  sexual  organs  and 
later  become  filled  with  eggs. 
As  soon  as  the  eggs  are  fertilized 
and  mature  the  segment  contain- 
ing them  drops  oflF  and  passes 
to  the  exterior  with  the  feces  of 
the  host.  Each  segment  of  this 
kind  contains  thousands  of  eggs. 

If  these  eggs  are  to  develop 
farther  they  must  be  swallowed 
by  some  intermediate  host  (as  a 
worm,  snail  or  insect).  The 
egg  then  hatches  into  a  6-hooked  embryo  which  bores  its 
wav  from  the  intestine  into  the  bodv  cavitv  of  the  inter- 


--.J 

ti%     1 

p 

r1  tj    1 

L  / 

L         H       :; 

i4  y  S 

V-V^V     a^'' 

^/jy     w 

Fig.   19.  —  Drepanidotcenia  in- 

fundibuliformis,  a  tape  worm 

of 

the  fowl.     (After  Stiles.) 

136  Diseases  of  Poultry 

mediate  host.  It  here  develops  into  a  larval  form  known  as 
a  cysticercoid.  When  the  intermediate  host  (worm,  snail, 
etc.)  is  eaten  by  a  chicken  this  larva  continues  its  develop- 
ment and  forms  an  adult  tape  worm.  Thus  there  are  two 
stages  in  the  life  cycle  of  a  tape  worm :  that  in  the  adult 
host  and  that  in  the  intermediate  host.  Each  species  of 
tape  worm,  of  which  there  are  a  great  many,  has  its  par- 
ticular host,  both  intermediate  and  final. 

According  to  Stiles  ^  there  were  up  to  1896,  33  species  of 
tape  worms  recorded  for  poultry.  Of  these  11  are  recorded 
as  occurring  in  chickens  {Gallus).  The  complete  life  history 
is  known  for  only  a  few  of  these.  Since  that  time  several 
other  species  have  been  described.^ 

Regarding  the  tape  worms  of  chickens.  Stiles  {loc.  cit.) 
says,  p.  13 :  "  (They)  are  known  to  become  infected  with 
one  tape-  worm  through  eating  slugs  {Limax).  They  are 
supposed  to  become  infected  with  a  second  through  eating 
snails  (Helix) ;  by  a  third  through  eating  flies  and  by  a 
fourth  through  eating  earth  worms." 

There  seems  but  little  need  to  give  a  description  of  the 
different  species  of  tape  worms  found  in  chickens.  The 
characters  by  which  they  are  distinguished  from  each  other 
are  too  minute  and  involved  to  be  of  use  to  the  poultryman 
or  farmer.  If  any  one  is  having  trouble  with  tape  worms  in 
poultry  the  best  thing  to  do  is  to  send  a  portion  of  the  intes- 
tine containing  the  worms  to  Washington  as  directed  above. 
The  correct  identification  of  the  species  and  the  correspond- 
ing knowledge  of  its  life  history  will  often  suggest  a  specific 
means  of  control. 


1  Stiles,  C.  W.,  "The  Tapeworms  of  Poultry."  U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agr.,  Bur.  of  Anim.  Ind.,  Bui.  12,  pp.  1-80,  1896. 

2  See  Ransom,  B.  H.,  "The  Tapeworms  of  American  Chickens 
and  Turkeys."  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bur.  of  Anim.  Indus.,  Ann, 
Rept.,  1904,  pp.  268-285. 


Internal  Parasites  137 


Nodular  Tceniasis 


Stiles  says,  p.  15:  "At  least  one  species  of  tape  worm 
(Davainea  tetragona)  causes  a  serious  nodular  disease  of  the 
intestine  of  chickens  which  upon  superficial  examination  may 
be  easily  mistaken  for  tuberculosis."     Moore  ^  says  : 

"Tuberculosis  is  the  only  known  disease  for  which  this 
affection  is  liable  to  be  mistaken,  and  it  is  of  much  importance 
that  the  two  diseases  should  not  be  confounded.  The 
diagnosis  has  not  in  my  experience  been  difficult,  as  in  every 
case  the  attached  tape  worms  were  readily  detected  upon  a 
close  examination  of  the  intestinal  contents,  or  of  the  mu- 
cous membrane  of  the  infected  portion  of  the  intestine.  How- 
ever, the  worms  are  quite  small  and  could  easily  be  over- 
looked in  a  hurried  or  cursory  examination.  In  case  of 
doubt,  if  the  affected  intestine  is  opened  and  the  mucous 
surface  washed  carefully  in  a  gentle  -stream  of  water,  the 
small  worms  will  be  observed  hanging  to  the  mucous  mem- 
brane. This  discovery,  in  the  absence  of  lesions  in  the  liver 
or  other  organs,  would  warrant  the  diagnosis  of  the  tape 
worm  disease." 

Diagnosis.  —  The  symptoms  of  tape  worm  disease  are  not 
specific.  The  general  symptoms  are  similar  to  those  of  other 
worms  (cf.  p.  134).  Regarding  the  symptoms  of  tape  worms 
Ziirn  ^  says : 

"If  numerous  tape  worms  are  present  in  the  intestine  of 
young  or  old  fowls  a  more  or  less  extensive  intestinal  catarrh 
develops,  corresponding  to  the  greater  or  less  number  of 
parasites  present. 

"The  intestinal  catarrh  shows  itself,  especially  in  chickens 

1  Moore,  V.  A.,  "A  Nodular  Taeniasis  in  Fowls."  U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agric,  Bur.  Anim.  Ind.,  Circ.  No.  3,  p.  4,  1895. 

2  Ziirn,  F.  A.,  "Die  Krankheiten  des  Hausgefliigels."  Weimar, 
1882. 


138 


Diseases  of  Poultry 


and  geese,  as  follows :  The  sick  animals  become  emaciated, 
although  the  appetite  is  not  especially  disturbed.  At 
times  the  appetite  is  even  increased. 
The  droppings  are  thin,  contain  con- 
siderable yellow  slime,  and  are  passed 
in  small  quantities  but  at  short  inter- 
vals. The  poultry  raiser  must  direct 
his  attention  to  these  thin,  slimy,  and 
often  bloody  droppings,  for  if  any 
treatment  against  the  tape  worm  is  to 
be  undertaken,  this  must  be  done  as 
early  as  possible.  In  observing  the 
droppings  it  should  be  noticed  whether 
tape  worm  segments  or  eggs  are  present. 
The  eggs  Can  be  seen,  of  course,  only 
with  the  microscope. 

"After  a  time  other  symptoms  de- 
velop.    The  sick  animals  become  dull 
and    listless,    remain  apart    from  the 
rest  of  the    flock  —  the    feathers   are 
ruffled  and  the  wings  droop,  the  appe- 
tite is  lost  and  the  birds  allow  them- 
selves to  be  easily  caught.     Although 
it  was  stated  that  in  the  beginning  of 
the  trouble    the    appetite   is  not  dis- 
turbed,  the  sick  animals  develop   an 
intense  thirst   for  cold  water.     When 
it  rains  they  run  under  the  eaves  in 
order  to  catch  water,  and    in  winter 
are  eager  for  ice  water." 
Since  the  examination  of  the  feces  for  tape  worm  segments 
is    rather    unsatisfactory    for    the    farmer    or   poultryman, 
Stiles  says  that  "The  best  method  for  the  farmer  to  follow  is 
to  kill  one  of  the  sick  chickens  when  he  suspects  tape  worms 


Fig.  20.  —  Intestine  of 
a  fowl  turned  wrong 
side  out  to  show 
tape  worms  in  nod- 
ular taeniasis.  (After 
Pearson  and  Warren.) 


Internal  Parasites  '  139 

and  to  cut  out  the  intestine.  He  should  then  open  the  intes- 
tinal tract  from  gizzard  to  anus  in  a  bowl  of  warm  water, 
and  look  for  the  parasites  "  (cf.  Fig.  20).  Finding  the 
worms  in  the  alimentary  canal  is  the  only  certain  diagnosis 
of  the  disease. 

Treatment.  —  The  chief  drugs  used  for  tape  worms  in 
fowls  are :  Extract  of  male  fern,  turpentine,  areca  nut, 
powdered  kamala,  pumpkin  seed,  pomegranate  root  bark 
and  Epsom  salts.  The  following  extract  from  Salmon  gives 
the  principal  methods  of  treatment  and  the  doses:  "One 
of  the  best  methods  of  treating  tape  worms  in  fowls  is  to 
mix  in  the  feed  a  teaspoonful  of  powdered  pomegranate  root 
bark  for  every  50  head  of  birds.  In  treating  a  few  birds  at 
a  time  it  is  well  to  follow  this  medicine  with  a  purgative 
dose  of  castor  oil  (2  or  3  teaspoonsful).  According  to  Ziirn, 
powdered  areca  nut  is  the  best  tape  worm  remedy  for  fowls, 
but  he  states  that  turkeys  are  unfavorably  affected  by  it. 
It  may  be  given  in  doses  of  30  to  45  grains  mixed  with  butter 
and  made  into  pills.  Male  fern  is  also  a  very  effectual 
remedy  and  may  be  used  in  the  form  of  powder  (dose  30 
grains  to  1  dram)  or  of  liquid  extract  (dose  15  to  30  drops). 
It  should  be  given  in  the  morning  and  evening,  before  feeding. 
Oil  of  turpentine  is  an  excellent  remedy  for  all  worms  which 
inhabit  the  digestive  canal.  It  may  be  given  in  the  dose  of 
1  to  3  teaspoonsful,  and  is  best  administered  by  forchig 
it  through  a  small  flexil)le  catheter  that  has  been  oiled  and 
passed  through  the  mouth  and  esophagus  to  the  crop.  This 
medicine  is  less  severe  in  its  effects  if  diluted  with  an  equal 
bulk  of  olive  oil,  but,  if  it  fails  to  destroy  the  parasites  when 
so  diluted,  it  may  be  given  pure." 

A  method  of  administering  medicine  such  as  turpentine 
by  depositing  it  directly  in  the  crop  has  been  proposed  by 
Gage  and  Opperman.^     This  method  can  be  advantageously 

1  Gage,  G.  E.,  and  Opperman,  C.  L.,  "A  Tapeworm  Disease  of 
Fowls."      Maryland  Agr.  Expt.  Stat.  Bui.  139,  pp.  73-85,  1909. 


140 


Diseases  of  Poultry 


used  with  many  other  Hquid  remedies,  and  should  be  adopted 
in  all  cases  where  it  is  important  to  have  the  full  dose  in  the 
stomach  in  a  short  time.  It  does  away  with  the  uncertainty 
attending  the  giving  of  medicine  in  the  feed  or  drinking  water, 
and  with  a  little  practice  is  more  expeditious  than  making 


l! 


Fig.  21.  —  Sketch  showing  method  of  introducing  turpentine  directly  into 
crop.     (After  Gage  and  Opperman.) 


and  giving  pills.  The  open  end  of  the  catheter  may  be  in- 
serted into  a  rubber  bulb  having  one  opening.  Just  sufficient 
air  should  be  expelled  from  the  bulb,  so  that  the  dose  of 
medicine  will  be  sucked  up  without  being  followed  by  much 
air.  The  bird's  head  is  then  brought  in  a  line  with  the  neck, 
which  is  extended,  the  catheter  is  passed  carefully  to  the 


Internal  Parasites  141 

crop  (Fig.  21),  when  a  slight  pressure  on  the  bulb  forces  out 
the  medicine,  and  the  instrument  is  withdrawn.  The 
operator  should  be  sure  that  he  avoids  the  trachea. 

Gage  and  Opperman  have  found  Epsom  salts  and  tur- 
pentine a  very  effective  remedy  for  Nodular  Ta^niasis.  After 
careful  consideration  of  the  data  they  conclude  that  "40  to  50 
grains  of  Epsom  salts  is  sufficient  for  an  adult  fowl  in  order 
to  clean  out  the  intestinal  tract  so  that  the  birds  may  take 
food.  Then  the  turpentine  should  be  introduced  "  as  directed 
above.  For  younger  birds  the  dose  of  salts  should  be  pro- 
portionately less.  In  fowls  from  6  months  to  2  years  old  the 
salts  are  best  given  by  dissolving  in  water  and  giving  each 
fowl  this  liquid.  For  younger  chicks  the  salts  may  be  dis- 
solved in  warm  water  and  used  to  moisten  the  mash  or  feed. 

Prevention.  —  One  of  the  most  important  measures  against 
all  parasitic  infestations  of  the  digestive  tract  is  to  move  the 
fowls  upon  fresh  ground  every  two  or  three  years.  This 
should  be  done  in  all  cases  where  such  parasites  are  fre- 
quently observed  in  the  intestines  of  the  birds.  Another 
practical  measure,  which  may  be  adopted  at  the  same  time, 
is  to  remove  the  excrement  daily  from  the  houses  and  destroy 
any  parasites  or  their  eggs  which  may  be  in  it,  by  mixing  it 
with  quick  lime  or  saturating  it  with  a  10  per  cent  solution 
of  sulphuric  acid.  The  acid  is  cheap,  but  requires  that 
great  care  be  taken  in  diluting  it,  owing  to  danger  of  its 
splashing  upon  the  clothing  and  flesh  and  causing  severe 
burns.  It  should  always  be  poured  slowly  into  the  water 
used  for  dilution,  but  on  no  account  should  water  be  poured 
into  the  acid  as  it  will  cause  explosions  and  splashing. 

When  treating  diseased  birds  these  should  always  be 
isolated  and  confined,  and  their  droppings  should  either  be 
burned  or  treated  with  lime  or  sulphuric  acid  as  just  recom- 
mended. Without  these  hygienic  measures,  medical  treat- 
ment can  only  be  partially  successful. 


142  Diseases  of  Poultry 

Stiles  says :  "  An  extermination  of  slugs  will  insure  im- 
munity against  Davainea  proglottina,  but  no  precise  directions 
can  be  given  to  prevent  chickens  from  becoming  infected 
with  other  tape  worms  until  the  life  history  of  these  parasites 
is  better  understood.  It  will  be  well,  however,  to  keep  the 
chickens  housed  in  the  morning  until  the  sun  is  well  up  and 
the  ground  is  drj^,  for  they  will  thus  be  less  likely  to  meet 
with  the  supposable  intermediate  hosts  of  other  worms." 

Round  Worms 

Round  worms  can  be  found  in  the  intestine  and  especially 
the  ceca  of  almost  any  fowl.  They  are  much  more  common 
than  the  tape  worms.     Normally  the  round  worms  cause 


Fig.  22.     Worms  protruding  from  a  section  of  the  intestine  of  a  fowl.     (After 
Bradshaw.) 

no  serious  trouble  to  fowls.  Under  certain  conditions,  how- 
ever, they  may  become  so  numerous  as  to  be  a  serious  menace 
to  the  flock.  At  such  times  they  have  a  decided  effect  on 
the  digestion ;    the  irritation  often  causes  diarrhea.     When 


Internal  Parasites  1-43 

in  large  numbers,  they  sometimes  become  rolled  and  matted 
into  a  ball  which  may  cause  complete  stoppage  of  the  in- 
testine. 

The  round  worms  are  white  in  color  and  vary  in  length 
from  I  inch  to  5  inches.  The  head  end  is  sharp  pointed, 
while  the  tail  end  is  more  blunt.  Round  worms  are  seldom 
passed  in  the  feces  unless  present  in  very  large  numbers. 
When  a  worm  is  passed  it  soon  dies  in  the  droppings  or  is 
eaten  by  another  fowl. 

Dispharagiis  spiralis,  a  small  worm  about  3  inch  in 
length,  is  often  found  in  the  esophagus  and  occasionally  in 
the  crop  or  intestine. 

Dispharagiis  nasutus,  about  j  inch  long,  occurs  in  the  walls 
of  the  gizzard  of  fowls.  It  sometimes  becomes  so  numerous 
as  to  cause  serious  loss. 

Another  nematode,  Cheilospemra  haniulosa,  parasite  in 
the  gizzard  of  the  chicken  has  recently  been  recorded  in  this 
country  by  Ransom.^  Specimens  have  been  found  from  the 
District  of  Columbia  as  far  west  as  Kansas. 

Two  other  nematodes,  Trichosoma  strunosum  and  Gingy- 
lonema  inglmicola,  have  been  found  in  the  pharynx  and 
esophagus  of  chickens." 

Heterakis  perspicillum,  from  1|  to  3  inches  long,  is  very 
common  in  the  intestines  of  fowls.  They  sometimes  become 
very  numerous  and  may  become  rolled  into  rather  large 
balls  which  obstruct  the  passage  of  the  food. 

Scott  ^  has  found  that  this  nematode  may  be  transmitted 
to  young  chicks  through  an  earthworm  (probably  Helodrilas 

1  Ransom,  B.  H.,  "The  Occurrence  of  Cheilosperura  hnmulosa 
in  the  United  States."     Science,  N.  S.,  Vol.  35,  p.  555,  1912. 

2  Crurea,  J.,  Zeitschr.  Infekt.  u.  Hyg.  d.  Haust.  Bd.  15,  pp.  49-60, 
1914. 

^  Scott,  J.  W.,  "A  New  Means  of  Transmitting  the  Fowl  Nema- 
tode, Heterakis  perspicillum."  Science,  N.  S.,  Vol.  38,  pp.  672-673, 
1913. 


144 


Diseases  of  Poultry 


parvus)  found  in  horse  manure.     Whether  the  worm  is  an 

intermediate  host  or  whether  the  nematode  eggs   simply 

cHng  to  the  surface  of  the  worm  has  not  been  determined. 

Several    other    species    of    the    genus 

Heterakis  also  infest  fowls   and  other 

poultry. 

At  least  one  species  of  ascaris  (Ascaris 
inflexa)  is  found  in  the  fowl.  This  is 
a  round  worm  white  or  yellowish-white 
in  color  and  from  one  to  two  inches 
in  length.  If  they  occur  in  sufficient 
numbers  they  produce  considerable 
irritation  in  the  digestive  tract.  In- 
fested birds  appear  unthrifty,  lack 
appetite  and  become  emaciated. 

Occasionally  this  or  other  round 
worms  may  pass  from  the  cloaca  into 
the  oviduct  or  egg  tube.  In  this  way 
they  may  be  incorporated  in  the  albu- 
men of  an  egg  as  it  is  formed  in  the  ovi- 
duct. 

Diagnosis.  —  The  symptoms  of  round 
worms  are  similar  to  those  of  all  worms 
(cf.  p.  134).  There  is  evidence  of  indi- 
gestion. The  comb  becomes  pale  and 
there  may  be  diarrhea. 

Treatment.  —  The  remedies  men- 
tioned on  p.  139  for  tape  worms  are 
also  useful  for  round  worms.  The  remedy  most  commonly 
advised  is  to  give  2  grains  santonine  for  each  bird.  Dis- 
solve this  in  water  and  use  to  mix  the  mash.  As  recom- 
mended on  p.  141,  all  droppings  should  be  collected  and 
examined,  also  put  out  of  reach  of  the  birds. 

Vale  recommends  the  following :    "  Beat  a  new  laid  egg 


Fig.  23.  —  Heterakis 
perspicillum.  a,  male. 
b,  female.  X  2.  (Af- 
ter Salmon.) 


Internal  Parasites 


145 


with  1  tablespoonful  of  oil  of  turpentine  and  mix  thoroughly 
by  shaking.  Give  a  teaspoonful  of  the  mixture  night  and 
morning  for  a  few  days ;  or  divide  |  of  an  ounce  of  areca  nut 
in  powder,  into  4  parts,  and 
give  1  part  each  morning, 
fasting,  with  a  dessertspoon- 
ful of  sweet  oil  2  hours  after 
each  powder," 


Flukes 

Flukes  or  trematode  worms 
are  small,  flat  and  usually 
oval-shaped.  Figure  24  gives 
a  fair  idea  of  the  appearance 
of  these  parasites. 

Regarding  these  parasites 
in  poultry,  Theobald  ^  says  : 

"  The  Trematode  worms  or 
Flukes  found  in  the  fowl  are 
3  in  number.  One  is  found 
in  the  egg  (Distoma  ovatum) 
the  others  in  the  esophagus 
and  intestines. 

"The  Fluke  found  in  the 
esophagus  of  the  fowl  is 
known  as  Cephalogonimus 
pelhicidus,  as  transparent 
reddish  fluke  about  9  mm. 
Von  Linstor  and    Railliet. 


Fig.  24.  —  Trematode  worm  or  fluke 
showing  internal  structure.  (From 
Thompson  after  Sommer.) 

long.     These  were  found  by 
In    the   intestines    Neumann 


enumerates  7  species,  namely,  Notocotyle  triserialis,  Distoma 

oxycephalum  Rud.,     D.  dilatatum  Miriam,  D.  lineare  Zeder, 

D.  ovatum,  D.  armatum  Molin,  and  Mesogonimus  commutatus 

1  Theobald,  F.  V.,  "Parasitic  Diseases  of  Poultry."     London. 


146  Diseases  of  Poultry 

Son.  These,  however,  are  not  all  distinct :  dilatatum  is 
undoubtedly  the  same  as  oxycephalum ;  armatum  is  also 
probably  the  same." 

None  of  these  trematode  worms  are  of  any  pathological 
importance,  although,  as  is  well  known,  they  often  cause 
serious  maladies  in  other  animals.  All  the  flukes  that  have 
tw^o  hosts  undergo  a  complicated  metamorphosis,  the  early 
stages  always  taking  place  in  some  water-mollusk.  Those 
found  in  the  fowl  have  not  had  their  life-histories  worked 
out. 

Numerous  flagellate  and  other  microscopic  parasites  have 
been  described  from  the  intestine,  ceca  and  cloaca  of 
fowls.  Martin  and  Robertson  ^  mention  particularly  the 
flagellates,  Chilomastix  gallinanim.  Trichomonas  gallinarum, 
Trypanosoma  eberthi  and  Trichomastix  gallinarum. 

Berke  ^  describes  a  microfilaria  occurring  very  abundantly 
in  the  liver  of  domestic  fowls. 

None  of  these  parasites  causes  serious  injury  so  far  as 
known. 

^Martin,  C.  H.,  and  Robertson,  Muriel,  "Further  Observations 
on  the  Cecal  Parasites  of  Fowls  with  some  Reference  to  the  Rectal 
Fauna  of  Other  Vertebrates."  Quart.  Jour.  Micros.  Sci.  (London), 
N.  S.,  Vol.  57,  pp.  53-81,  1911. 

2  Berke,  Centralb.  f.  Bakt.,  etc.,  Abt.  1,  Bd.  58,  pp.  32(3-330,  1911. 


CHAPTER   XI 
Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  System 


ANATOMY   AND    PHYSIOLOGY 

The  respiratory  organs  of  birds  are  the  nasal  passages,  the 
pharynx,  larynx, 
trachea,  lungs  and 
air  sacs.  The  form 
and  general  appear- 
ance of  the  lungs 
and  trachea  are 
shown  in  Fig.  25. 

The  respiratory 
apparatus  differs 
somewhat  in  struc- 
ture and  function 
from  that  of  mam- 
mals. As  in  mam- 
mals the  trachea 
(windpipe)  divides 
into  the  primary 
bronchi,  one  pass- 
ing to  each  lung. 
In  birds  these 
bronchi  do  not  di- 
vide and  subdivide  ^^^  ^S.  -  Photograph  of  the  lungs  of  a  do- 
as  in  mammals,  but  mestic  fowl.     The  air  passages  are  injected 

each   passes   to    the  with  gelatine.     (Original.) 

147 


148 


Diseases  of  Poultry 


^--^ 


posterior  end  of  its  lung  where  it  opens  into  the  abdominal 
air  sac.     This  relation  is  shown  in  Fig.  26. 

The  primary  bronchus  gives  off  secondary  bronchi  which 
radiate  toward  the  surface  of  the  lungs.  The  secondary 
bronchi  give  off  smaller  radiating  branches,  the  tertiary 
bronchi.     Both  primary  and  secondary  bronchi  remain  of 

practically    uniform 
-  -d  diameter      through- 

■.,.-.  out    their    entire 

length.  For  the 
most  part  these 
tubes  end  blindly, 
but  some  of  them 
communicate  with 
the  air  sacs.  This 
tubular  system 
makes  up  the  air- 
containing  portion 
of  the  lungs.  It  is 
embedded  in  a  net- 
work of  almost 
naked  blood  vessels 
which  make  up  the 
spongy  tissue  of  the 
lungs.  The  aera- 
tion of  the  blood 
takes  place  through 
the  walls  of  these  vessels.  The  intimate  relations  of  the 
tubular  and  vascular  systems  of  the  lungs  are  shown  in 
Fig.  28. 

The  air  sacs  are  very  large,  thin-walled  sacs  which  open 
into  the  bronchial  tubes  as  described.  When  expanded 
with  air  these  sacs  fill  all  the  available  space  in  the  thoracic- 
abdominal  cavity  and  axilla.     A  small  sac  also  lies  along  the 


Fig.  26.  —  Diagrammatic  drawing  of  the  left 
lung  of  a  domestic  fowl,  a,  primary  bronchus  ; 
b,  secondary  bronchus ;  b^,  openings  of  other 
secondary  bronchi ;  c,  opening  of  tertiary 
bronchus  ;  d,  openings  into  air  sacs.  (Origi- 
nal.) 


Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  System 


149 


ventral  side  of  the  neck,  while  diverticula  from  the  large  sacs 
are  embedded  among  the  muscles  and  even  penetrate  some 
of  the  bones.  These  sacs  function  chiefly  as  reservoirs  of 
air.  Some  aeration  of  blood  takes  place  in  the  sacs  and  they 
also  help  to  reduce  the  relative  weight  of  the  body.  The  air 
sacs  are  the  elastic  or 
bellows-like  portion  of 
the  respiratory  appara- 
tus. The  lungs,  on  ac- 
count of  their  structure 
and  position  in  the  body, 
are  permanently  dis- 
tended. During  inspira- 
tion the  air  passes 
through  the  trachea  and 
lungs  into  the  sacs. 
Fresh  outside  air  is  thus 
brought  into  the  portion 
of  the  lungs  where  the 
blood  is  aerated.  During 
expiration  air  from  the 
sacs  is  forced  back 
through  the  lungs.  The 
current  sucks  out  the  air 
from  the  blind  ending 
tubes  and  to  some  extent 
supplies  comparatively  fresh  air  in  expiration.  Thus  the 
respiratory  apparatus  in  birds  is  more  efficient  than  in 
mammals,  where  fresh  air  is  never  available  for  the  aera- 
tion of  the  blood,  the  entire  process  being  carried  on  by 
residual  air. 

In  addition  to  aeration  of  the  blood,  the  respiratory  ap- 
paratus eliminates  most  of  the  waste  moisture  of  the  body  and 
is,  therefore,  the  temperature  regulator.     In  mammals  this 


Fig.  27.  —  Ventral  surface  of  the  right 
lung  of  a  fowl,  injected  with  wax. 
(From  Gadow,  after  Stieda.) 


150 


Diseases  of  Poultry 


function  is  performed  by  the  sweat  glands  and  the  secretion 
of  the  kidneys.  Birds  have  no  sweat  glands  and  the  secre- 
tion of  the  kidneys  contains  relatively  little  moisture. 

The  air  passages  are  lined  with  mucous  membrane  and  this 
membrane  is  the  seat  of  several  diseases.     Diseases  are  easily 


Fig.   28.  —  Cross  section  of  two  of  the  small  air  tubes  6f  the  lung  of 

On  the  right  the  air  passages  are  filled  with  black  injection  mass.     On 
the  left  the  arteries  are  similarly  injected.     (From  Oppel,  after  Schulze.) 


transferred  from  one  part  of  the  respiratory  system  to  another, 
since  the  passages  and  also  the  lining  membranes  are  contin- 
uous from  the  nostrils  to  the  air  sacs.  There  are  also  diseases 
of  the  vascular  part  of  the  lungs.  Some  of  these  diseases  are 
caused  by  unfavorable  conditions  as  exposure  to  cold, 
drafts  of  air,  or  moist  air  or  to  improper  food.  Others 
are  due  to  specific  organisms.  Most  of  the  latter  are  con- 
tagious. Exposure  to  unfavorable  conditions  also  reduces 
the  ability  of  the  birds  to  resist  infectious  diseases. 


Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  System  151 

Catarrh  (Simple  Catarrh;  Non-contagious  Catarrh;  Cold) 

One  of  the  most  common  diseases  of  the  air  passages 
is  catarrh  (cold) .  It  is  often  hard  to  distinguish  this  disease 
from  early  stages  of  roup  and  diphtheria.  The  characteristic 
symptoms  of  the  latter  disease  should  be  carefully  looked  for, 
lest  the  flock  become  infected  with  a  dangerous  contagious 
disease.  In  cases  where  there  is  a  suspicion  of  either  of 
these  diseases  it  is  better  to  isolate  the  sick  birds.  Catarrh 
is  non-contagious.  It  usually  affects  only  a  few  individuals 
in  the  flock,  but  in  cases  of  exposure  of  the  flock  to  the  un- 
favorable conditions  which  cause  the  disease  it  may  occur 
in  quite  a  number  of  birds  at  the  same  time. 

Diagnosis.  —  Affected  birds  sneeze  frequently,  appear  dull 
and  lose  their  appetites.  In  early  stages  of  the  disease  a 
thin  mucous  secretion  is  discharged  from  the  nostrils.  Often 
the  eyes  are  watery  and  the  eyelids  inflamed  and  swollen. 
Later,  in  severe  cases,  the  mucous  secretions  become  gelati- 
nous. The  head  passages  may  become  entirely  filled  with 
this  thick  secretion.  Breathing  is  then  entirely  through  the 
mouth  and  is  accompanied  by  a  wheezing  sound.  A  watery 
liquid  drools  from  the  mouth.  Death  occurs,  apparently 
from  exhaustion,  in  very  severe  cases. 

Etiology.  —  The  cause  of  catarrh  is  exposure  to  cold,  to 
drafts  of  air,  to  damp  atmosphere  due  to  improper  housing 
conditions,  or  to  wet  weather.  Weak  stock  or  improperly 
nourished  birds  are  more  likely  to  be  affected  by  these  con- 
ditions than  strong,  vigorous  and  well  fed  individuals. 

Treatment.  —  With  strong,  healthy  stock  it  is  usually  only 
necessary  to  remove  the  cause.  Affected  birds  should  be 
kept  in  warm,  dry,  well  ventilated  rooms.  Daily  individual 
treatment  is  effective  and  may  profitably  be  applied  if  the 
attack  is  severe  and  the  bird  valuable. 

This  treatment  when  most  effective  involves  three  steps : 


152  Diseases  of  Poultry 

(1)  Removal  of  secretions.  The  mouth  and  nostrils  and 
the  eyes,  if  affected,  should  be  washed  with  warm  water  con- 
taining 1  teaspoonful  of  common  salt  to  the  quart.  A  small 
wad  of  absorbent  cotton  may  be  used  to  apply  this  cleansing 
solution.  The  sides  of  the  head  under  the  eyes  and  around 
the  nostrils  should  be  massaged  gently  to  loosen  the  secretion. 

(2)  Disinfecting  the  air  passages  and  eyes.  The  air  pas- 
sages and  eyes  should  now  be  disinfected  with  one  of  the  fol- 
lowing solutions,  given  here  in  order  of  preference  : 

a.  Potassium  permanganate,  2  per  cent  solution. 

b.  Boracic  acid,  3  per  cent  solution. 

c.  Creolin,  1  per  cent  solution. 

d.  Hydrogen  dioxide  and  water,  equal  parts. 

e.  Carbolic  acid,  2  per  cent  solution. 

These  solutions  may  be  injected  into  the  nostrils  with  a 
small  syringe  or  a  medicine  dropper,  but  on  account  of  the 
small  aperture  of  the  nostrils  they  are  more  effectively  ap- 
plied through  the  internal  opening  of  the  air  passages.  This 
is  a  long,  widely  open  slit  in  the  roof  of  the  mouth.  It  is 
easily  exposed  in  a  position  to  receive  the  treatment  by  hold- 
ing the  bird  head  down,  grasping  the  head,  comb  down,  in  the 
hand  and  opening  the  mouth  with  the  thumb.  The  solution 
may  then  be  injected  into  the  slit  or  poured  in  with  a  teaspoon. 
The  head  should  be  held  firmly  in  this  position  for  several 
seconds  after  the  treatment  to  allow  the  solution  to  pene- 
trate to  all  parts  of  the  head  passages.  Gently  massaging 
the  sides  of  the  head  also  helps  distribute  the  disinfectant. 
The  eyes  may  be  washed  with  the  same  disinfecting  solution 
used  for  the  nostrils. 

(3)  Applying  oil  to  the  head  passages.  A  quarter  of  a 
teaspoonful  of  oil  of  thyme,  oil  of  eucalyptus,  or  even  sweet 
oil  should  now  be  administered  in  the  same  way  as  the  disin- 
fecting solution.  If  the  eyes  are  affected  introduce  2  drops 
of  15  per  cent  argyrol  solution. 


Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  System  153 

When  the  head  passages  are  not  filled  with  mucus  the  ap- 
pUcation  of  the  oil  to  the  nostrils  and  argyrol  to  the  eyes 
without  the  previous  steps  is  very  beneficial. 

Prognosis.  —  A  great  majority  of  the  birds  recover  in  a  few 
days  if  the  cause  is  immediately  removed.  If  the  cause  con- 
tinues to  act  they  may  become  worse  and  die,  or  the  disease 
may  become  chronic  and  persist  for  a  long  time. 

Bronchitis,  Croup 

This  disease  may  follow  catarrh  as  a  direct  extension 
of  the  inflammatory  processes  in  the  membrane  of  the 
nasal  cavities  and  throat  to  the  mucous  membrane  of  bron- 
chial tubes. 

Diagnosis.  —  The  symptoms  of  bronchitis  are  the  symptoms 
of  a  hard  cold  (severe  catarrh)  with  rapid  breathing  and 
cough.  It  may  be  distinguished  from  a  cold  by  the  peculiar 
sounds  made  in  breathing.  In  the  early  stages  of  the  disease 
this  is  a  whistling  sound  made  by  the  passage  of  the  air 
over  the  dry,  thickened  membrane.  As  the  disease  advances 
mucus  collects  in  the  tubes  and  the  breathing  is  accompanied 
by  a  rattling  or  bubbling  sound.  Under  favorable  conditions 
the  symptoms  do  not  usually  pass  beyond  this  stage  but  soon 
disappear.  In  very  severe  cases  the  birds  become  very  sleepy 
and  refuse  to  eat.  The  wings  droop.  The  feathers  are 
roughened  and  breathing  becomes  more  and  more  difficult, 
until  finally  the  bird  dies.  The  less  severe  forms  of  the  dis- 
ease may  become  chronic,  while  the  symptoms  of  rattling 
breath  and  coughing  up  mucus  may  persist  for  a  long  time. 
In  this  form  of  the  disease  the  birds  appear  well  except  for  the 
above  symptoms. 

Etiology.  —  When  it  follows  a  hard  cold,  bronchitis  may  be 
caused  by  an  extension  of  the  inflammation  of  the  mucosa  of 
the  throat  to  the  mucosa  of  the  bronchial  tubes.     It  may  also 


154  Diseases  of  Poultry 

be  caused  directly  by  exposure  to  cold,  drafts,  and  damp- 
ness; or  it  may  result  from  irritation  of  the  mucous 
membrane  caused  by  inhaling  irritating  vapors,  dust  or 
foreign  particles. 

Treatment.  —  Place  the  patient  in  a  warm,  dry,  well  venti- 
lated but  not  drafty  room.  Feed  bread  or  middlings 
moistened  with  milk,  and  add  to  this  food  2  grains  of  black 
antimony  twice  a  day.  A  demulcent  drink  is  often  beneficial. 
A  very  good  one  is  made  by  steeping  a  little  flax  seed  in  water. 
Other  demulcent  drinks  are  made  by  dissolving  honey  or  gum 
arable  in  water.  This  treatment  is  sufficient  for  mild  cases. 
Salmon  recommends  the  following  treatment  for  severe  at- 
tacks :  "  If  the  attack  promises  to  be  severe,  it  may  sometimes 
be  checked  in  the  early  stages  by  giving  10  drops  of  spirits 
of  turpentine  in  a  teaspoonful  of  castor  oil  and  repeating  this 
dose  after  5  or  6  hours.  It  should  not  be  continued  after  there 
are  signs  of  purging,  for  fear  of  exhausting  the  strength  of 
the  patient.  In  the  very  acute  cases,  where  the  whistling 
or  snoring  sounds  with  the  respiration  indicate  a  croupous 
form  of  inflammation,  and  where  the  gasping  shows  great 
obstruction  of  the  air  passage,  relief  may  be  obtained  by 
giving  from  3  to  6  drops  of  either  the  sirup  or  the  wine  of 
ipecac. 

"Medicines  should  be  administered  very  carefully  in  dis- 
eases affecting  the  trachea  and  bronchi,  as  otherwise  they 
may  enter  the  air  passages  and  increase  the  irritation." 

Prognosis.  —  In  the  ordinary  and  chronic  forms  the  birds 
usually  recover.  In  the  more  severe  forms  a  large  per  cent 
of  the  affected  birds  die. 

Influenza  (Epizootic,  Grippe,  Distemper) 

The  symptoms  are  the  same  as  those  of  a  severe  cold  ac- 
companied by  fever  and  usually  also  by  diarrhea.     It  ap- 


Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  System  155 

pears  to  be  a  contagious  germ  disease  as  it  often  affects  a 
large  number  of  birds  kept  together. 

Quite  possibly  this  is  not  a  separate  disease  but  is  either 
a  severe  form  of  cold  occurring  in  many  individuals  of  a 
flock  which  has  been  exposed  to  unfavorable,  unsanitary 
conditions,  or  is  a  mild  form  of  roup.  Affected  birds  should 
be  isolated.  If  diarrhea  is  present  give  one-half  to  one  tea- 
spoonful  of  Epsom  salts  dissolved  in  water.  Treatment  the 
same  as  for  colds. 

Prognosis.  —  Most  cases  recover  in  a  week  or  ten  days. 
Severe  cases  die  in  a  day  or  two  or  sometimes  within  a  few 
hours  after  the  appearance  of  the  first  symptoms. 

Roiiy 

Veterinarians  have  distinguished  two  diseases  belonging 
to  this  general  class  of  troubles  as  follows :  (a)  roup  or 
contagious  catarrh  when  only  catarrhal  symptoms  are 
present,  and  (6)  diphtheria,  diphtheritic  roup  and  canker  when 
diphtherial  patches  and  false  membranes  are  formed.  The 
bacteriologists  Harrison  and  Streit,^  consider  these  different 
stages  of  the  same  disease.  This  view  has  been  quite 
generally  accepted.  Cary  ^  and  several  other  workers  ^  not 
only  consider  these  as  one  disease  but  also  believe  that  sore- 
head, chicken  pox  or  epithelioma  contagiosmn  is  also  a  form 
of  this  disease.  Evidence  for  the  identity  of  "  avian 
diphtheria  "  or  "  diphtheritic  roup  "  and   chicken   pox  is 

'Harrison,  F.  C,  and  Streit,  H.,  "Roup."  Ontario  Agr.  Col. 
and  Expt.  Farm  Bull.  125.     1902.     Ihid.,    Bui.  132.     1904. 

^  Gary,  C.  A.,  "  Chicken  Pox  or  Sore  Head  in  Poultry."  Ala- 
bama Col.  Sta.  Bui.  136.     1906. 

^For  example,  Kingsley,  A.  F.,  "Epithelioma  Contagiosum." 
Amer.  Vet.  Rev.,  30.  1907.  Hadley,  F.  B.,  and  Beach,  B.  A., 
"Controlling  Chicken  Pox,  Sore  Head  or  Contagious  Epithelioma 
by  Vaccination."  Proc.  Amer.  Vet.  Med.  Assoc,  Vol.  50,  pp.  704- 
712.     1913. 


156  Diseases  of  Poultry 

cited  by  several  European  investigators.^  On  the  other 
hand  Haring  and  Kofoid  ^  and  Sweet  "^  and  Fally  ^  believe 
that  there  is  convincing  evidence  that  sore-head  is  dis- 
tinct from  the  roup  diseases.  These  questions  cannot  be 
settled  with  the  present  knowledge  of  the  causes  of  these 
diseases.  The  probability  is  that  there  are  at  least  three 
diseases  although  each  of  them  may  under  certain  conditions 
produce  lesions  similar  to  those  of  either  of  the  other  two. 
In  fact  the  disagreement  in  the  results  of  different  investi- 
gators suggests  that  there  may  be  several  contagious  diseases 
which  produce  nearly  identical  lesions.  In  the  present  work 
nasal  roup,  diphtheritic  roup,  and  chicken  pox  will  be  dis- 
cussed as  separate  diseases. 

Nasal  Roup  or  Cotitagious  Catarrh 

The  disease  called  "roup"  by  poultrymen  is  a  contagious 
catarrh.  It  attacks  principally  the  membranes  lining  the  eye, 
the  sacs  below  the  eye  (infra-orbital  sinuses),  the  nostrils,  the 
larynx,  and  the  trachea. 

Diagnosis.  —  The  general  characteristics  of  the  disease 
have  been  very  well  described  by  Salmon.  The  symptoms 
first  seen  are  very  similar  to  those  of  an  ordinary  cold,  but 

1  Carnwath,  T.,  Arb.  K.  Gsndhsamt.  Orig.  27,  pp.  388-402.  1907. 
Schmid,  G.,  Centhl.  Bakt.,  etc.,  Orig.  52,  pp.  200-234.  1909.  Ratz,  I., 
Allotorvosi  Lapok,  Vol.  33,  pp.  184-186.  1910.  Sigwart,  H.,  Centbl. 
Bakt.,  etc.,  Orig.  56,  pp.  428-464.  1910.  Uhlenhuth  and  Manteufel. 
Arb.  K.  Gsndhsamt.,  Vol.  38,  pp.  288-304.  1910.  von  Betegh,  L., 
Centbl.  Bakt.,  etc.,  Orig.  67,  pp.  43-50.  1912.  von  Katz,  S.,  Monatsch. 
Prakt.  Tierheilk.,  Vol.  25,  pp.  41-46.     1913. 

-Haring,  C.  M.,  and  Kofoid,  C.  A.,  "Observations  concerning 
the  Pathology  of  Roup  and  Chicken  Pox."  Amer.  Vet.  Rev.,  Vol. 
40,  pp.  717-728.     1912. 

•^  Sweet,  C.  D.,  "A  Study  of  Epithelioma  Contagiosum  of  the 
Common  Fowl."  Univ.  of  Col.  Pubs.  Zool.,  Vol.  11,  pp.  29-51. 
1913. 

*  Fally,  V.     Ann.  Med.  Vet.,  Vol.  57,  pp.  68-75.     1908. 


Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  System 


157 


there  is  more  fever,  dullness  and  prostration.  Harrison  and 
Streit  say  that  although  the  head  is  often  very  hot  the  body 
temperature  is  normal  or  only  very  slightly  higher  than  nor- 
mal. The  discharge  from  the  nasal  opening  is  at  first  thin 
and  watery,  but  in  two  or  three  days  becomes  thick  and  ob- 
structs the  breathing.     The  inflammation,  which  begins  in 

Eye  displaced  and  closed  by 
Tumor.  swollen  membranes. 


Fig.  29.  —  Photograph  of  a  fowl's  head  showing  infra-orbital  tumor  caused 
by  roup.     (After  Roebuck.) 


the  nasal  passages,  soon  extends  to  the  eyes  and  to  the  spaces 
which  exist  immediately  below  the  eyeballs.  The  eyelids 
are  swollen,  and  are  closed  much  of  the  time.  They  may  be 
glued  together  by  the  accumulated  secretion.  The  birds 
sneeze  and  shake  their  heads  in  their  efforts  to  free  the  air 
passages  from  the  thick  mucus.  The  appetite  is  diminished 
and  the  birds  sit  with  their  heads  drawn  in,  wings  drooping, 
with  the  general  appearance  of  depression  and  illness. 


158 


Diseases  of  Poidtnj 


When  the  inflammation  reaches  the  spaces  or  sacs  beneath 
the  eyes  it  causes  the  formation  of  a  secretion  very  similar 
to  that  of  the  nose,  and  as  this  becomes  thick  it  collects,  dis- 
tends the  walls  of  these  spaces,  and  produces  a  warm  and 
painful  swelling,  which  is  seen  just  below  the  eyes  and  may 
reach  the  size  of  a  hickory  nut.  This  swelling  presses  with 
much  force  on  the  eyeball,  which  is  displaced  and  more  or 


Fig.  30.  —  Showing  appearance  of  a  hen  a  day  before  death  from  roup. 
(After  Harrison  and  Streit.) 

less  deformed ;  and  in  extreme  cases  even  the  bones  of  the 
head  may  give  way  before  it. 

The  closure  of  the  eyes  prevents  the  badly  affected  birds 
from  finding  food  ;  the  accumulation  of  mucus  in  the  nostrils 
completely  obstructs  these  passages,  so  that  the  beak  must 
be  kept  open  in  order  to  breathe;  the  obstruction  of  the 
windpipe  and  the  smaller  air  tubes  causes  loud  breathing 
sounds  and  difficult  respiration. 

In  the  severe  and  advanced  cases  the  birds  sit  in  a  som- 
nolent or  semiconscious  condition,  unable  to  see  or  to  eat ; 
their  strength  is  rapidly  exhausted,  and  many  of  them  die 
within  a  week  or  ten  days.     A  part  of  the  affected  indi- 


Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  SystcDi  159 

viduals  recover,  but  others  continue  weak  and  have  a  chronic 
form  of  the  disease  for  months  ;  during  which  time  they  con- 
tinue to  disseminate  the  contagion. 

This  disease  is  distinguished  from  diphtheria  by  the  ab- 
sence of  the  thick,  tough,  and  very  adherent  newly  formed 
membranes  (false  memibranes)  in  the  nostrils,  mouth,  and 
throat  which  are  characteristic  of  the  latter. 

The  Course  of  the  Disease.  —  The  course  of  roup  is  usually 
of  long  duration.  A  simple,  putrid  discharge  from  the  nose 
may  stop  in  three  or  four  weeks.  But  generally  the  symp- 
toms last  for  months.  When  the  eyelids  become  swollen 
and  tumors  appear,  the  case  is  usually  chronic.  Affected 
birds  may  be  better  for  a  few  days  or  weeks,  and  then  be- 
come very  weak  again.  Damp,  cold  weather  usually  inten- 
sifies the  disease. 

It  is  well  known  that  fowls  may  be  more  or  less  sick  from 
roup  for  one  or  even  several  years  and  these  birds  should 
have  the  greatest  care  and  attention,  or  else  be  killed  at  once, 
for  they  are  generally  the  cause  of  new  outbreaks.  Once 
introduced,  roup  may  remain  in  a  flock  for  many  years.  The 
first  cold  and  moist  nights  of  the  fall  and  early  winter 
cause  all  kinds  of  catarrhs,  which  in  many  instances  are 
followed  by  roup.  Roup  spreads  rapidly  in  the  winter 
time  and  may  attack  from  10  to  90  per  cent  of  the  fowls  in 
a  flock.  Towards  spring,  the  disease  gradually  disappears ; 
during  the  summer  months,  a  few  birds  remain  chronically 
affected ;  and  then  the  first  cold  nights  give  the  disease  a 
fresh  start. 

There  is  a  great  deal  of  difference  in  the  susceptibility  of 
fowls  to  the  disease.  Young  fowls  and  finely  bred  fowls  are 
especially  liable  to  contract  it.  Some  birds  are  apparently 
naturally  immune  and  never  take  the  disease.  Others  ap- 
parently have  it  in  a  mild  form  and  completely  recover, 
having  thereby  acquired  an  immunity. 


160  Diseases  of  Poultry 

Etiology.  —  Several  organisms  have  been  isolated  from  the 
lesions  of  birds  suffering  from  roup.^  Four  of  these  have  some 
claim  to  be  considered  the  cause  of  the  disease.  These  include 
three  species  of  bacteria  and  one  protozoon.  There  is  also 
some  evidence  that  the  cause  of  the  disease  is  an  invisible 
virus.  While  the  specific  organism  or  organisms  which  cause 
the  disease  are  not  certainly  known  its  infectious  nature  is 
well  established.  It  is  probably  carried  from  one  individual 
to  another  in  a  flock,  by  the  particles  of  dried  secretion  in  the 
air  or  possibly  by  the  food  and  drink  contaminated  by  the 
diseased  birds.  It  may  be  introduced  into  a  flock  by  the 
bringing  in  of  birds  from  an  infected  flock,  or  by  birds  that 
have  contracted  the  disease  at  shows.  Possibly  it  is  sometimes 
carried  on  the  shoes  or  clothing  of  persons  coming  from  in- 
fected yards  or  houses,  and  possibly  also  by  wild  birds  or 
pigeons  which  fly  from  one  poultry  yard  to  another.  While 
a  source  of  infection  is  necessary  for  the  production  of  the 
disease  it  does  not  appear  to  attack  birds  when  the  mucous 
membrane  is  in  a  healthy  condition.  It  is  most  apt  to  attack 
birds  that  are  suffering  with  catarrh.  When  a  flock  once 
becomes  infected  the  birds  which  develop  a  mild  chronic  form 
of  the  disease  serve  as  sources  of  infection  whenever  ex- 
posure to  cold  and  dampness  causes  catarrh  in  the  unaffected 

^  Much  confusion  in  regard  to  etiology  of  the  diseases  belonging 
to  general  class  commonly  referred  to  as  roup  arises  from  the  fact 
that  several  investigators  believe  them  to  be  stages  in  a  single  dis- 
ease. A  partial  list  of  the  literature  on  the  etiology  of  roup  and 
diphtheria  follows.  Harrison,  F.  C,  and  Streit,  H.,  loc.  cit.  Uhlen- 
huth  and  Manteufel,  loc.  cil.  von  Betegh,  L.,  loc.  cit.  von  Katz, 
S.,  loc.  cit.  Guerin,  C,  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  T.  15,  pp.  941-952. 
1901.  Borrel.  Compt.  Rend.  Soc.  Biol.  (Paris),  T.  57,  pp.  642-643. 
1904.  Galli-Valerio.  Centbl.  Bakt.  Orig.,  Bd.36,pp.  465-471.  1904. 
Streit,  H.,  Ztsch.  Hyg.  u.  Infectionskrank.  46,  pp.  407-462.  1904. 
MuUer,  R.,  Centhl.  Bakt.,  etc.,  Orig.  41,  pp.  423-426;  515-523;  621- 
628.  1906.  Bordet,  J.,  et  FaUy,  V.,  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  T.  24, 
pp.  563-568.     1910. 


Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  System  161 

birds.  Thus  in  infected  flocks  an  outbreak  of  roup  usually 
follows  catarrh  caused  by  exposure  and  this  fact  has  led  some 
poultrymen  to  think  that  the  disease  may  be  caused  directly 
by  exposure.  In  some  flocks  it  appears  annually  with  the 
cold  damp  weather  of  late  autumn  and  breaks  out  again  at 
every  radical  change  of  temperature  and  moisture  conditions 
throughout  the  winter.  Vigorous  and  properly  nourished 
birds  are  better  able  to  resist  catarrh  and  consequently  roup 
than  those  that  are  delicate  and  improperly  fed. 

Treatment.  —  The  best  treatment  is  prevention.  The  dis- 
ease can  be  prevented  by  stopping  all  sources  of  infection. 
Some  things  to  keep  in  mind  are : 

1.  In  introducing  new  birds  always  procure  them  from 
uninfected  flocks. 

2.  Isolate  all  new  birds  and  all  birds  that  have  been  ex- 
hibited at  shows  for  two  or  three  weeks  to  make  sure  that 
they  do  not  develop  the  disease. 

3.  Exclude  from  uninfected  house  and  yards  poultry  and 
all  other  animals,  including  men,  coming  from  those  that  are 
infected. 

4.  Do  not  use  implements  as  hoes,  shovels,  etc.,  that  have 
been  used  on  infected  premises. 

5.  Keep  the  birds  in  a  good  hygienic  condition,  well  nour- 
ished and  in  dry  well  ventilated  houses  and  roomy  yards. 

When  the  disease  has  been  introduced  into  the  flock  careful 
precaution  may  prevent  its  spread. 

1 .  Immediately  separate  from  the  flock  any  bird  that  shows 
symptoms  of  the  disease. 

2.  Disinfect  the  yards  and  houses  with  a  5  per  cent  solu- 
tion of  carbolic  acid  or  better  the  cresol  solution  described 
in  chapter  II.  Remove  the  litter  from  the  houses  and  dis- 
infect freely.  This  disinfecting  solution  may  also  be  fol- 
lowed by  whitewash. 

3.  Use  potassium  permanganate  in  all  drinking  water. 


162  Diseases  of  Poultry 

4.  Keep  watch  of  the  flock  so  that  any  new  cases  may  be 
isolated  at  once. 

5.  Bimi  or  bury  deep  all  birds  that  die. 

The  disease  is  amenable  to  treatment  but  this  treatment 
must  be  individual  and  requires  a  great  deal  of  time.  It 
must  be  continued  once  or  twice  a  day  for  quite  a  long  time. 
It  is,  therefore,  very  expensive  and  consequently  imprac- 
ticable for  ordinary  stock.  Moreover  birds  apparently  cured 
are  likely  to  become  the  source  of  infection  for  later  outbreaks. 

In  the  case  of  valuable  show  birds  treatment  may  perhaps 
be  advisable. 

The  treatment  recommended  for  catarrh  or  cold  may  be 
used  effectively  in  early  stages  of  roup. 

Harrison  and  Streit  ^  give  the  following  methods  of  treating 
roup : 

"  The  germs  of  roup  are  not  very  resistant ;  they  can 
easily  be  destroyed  when  present  in  cultures,  or  somewhere 
outside  the  animal ;  but  in  the  animal  tissue,  they  are  very 
difficult  to  kill,  because  they  penetrate  into  the  tissue ;  and 
unless  this  too  is  killed,  the  germs  continue  living  for  a 
long  time." 

"  Roup  may  be  cured  by  remedies,  if  the  treatment  is  careful 
and  judicious.  ...  If  the  eyes  and  nose  are  attacked,  they 
have  to  be  carefully  washed,  at  least  twice  a  day,  with  an 
antiseptic  solution,  such  as  2  per  cent  boracic  acid  in  a 
decoction  of  chamomile  flowers,  or  |  per  cent  solution  of 
corrosive  sublimate.  Thus  the  micro-organisms  are  killed 
or  at  least,  the  diseased  products  which  are  discharged  are 
removed,  and  the  irritation  caused  by  them  ;  also  the  trans- 
formation into  large  cheesy  masses  is  prevented. 

"We  had  chickens  badly  affected  with  roup  of  the  eyes, 
which  were  cured  with  boracic  acid  and  chamomile.     On 

1  Harrison,  F.  C,  and  Streit,  H.,  Roup.  Ont.  Agr.  Coll.  &  Exp. 
Farm.     Bui.  125,  Dec.  1902,  pp.  1-16. 


Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  System  163 

account  of  the  smallness  of  the  nostrils  and  nasal  canals,  it  is 
very  difficult  to  get  the  antiseptic  solutions  into  the  nose  and 
nasal  cavities ;  but  it  can  be  done  with  a  small  syringe.  If 
this  treatment  is  too  troublesome,  then  the  nostrils,  at  least, 
should  be  washed  and  opened  several  times  a  day,  to  allow  the 
secretions  to  pass  away.  We  have  treated  chickens  for  14 
days  by  daily  washing  with  a  2|  per  cent  solution  of  creolin 
and  glycerine.  After  the  washings,  small  plugs  of  cotton 
wool,  filled  with  mixture,  were  placed  in  the  nostrils  and 
lachrymal  ducts.  This  remedy  did  not  cure  the  roup,  al- 
though the  same  mixture  readily  kills  the  roup  bacillus  in 
cultures  in  from  2  to  3  minutes.  The  greatest  hindrance  to  a 
sure  cure  by  remedies  which  have  been  used  locally,  is  the 
ability  of  the  germ  to  penetrate  into  the  tissue  and  the  many 
secondary  cavities  of  the  nostrils  which  cannot  be  reached 
by  the  antiseptic. 

"Another  method  of  treatment  which  gives  excellent 
results,  especially  in  the  early  stages  of  roup,  is  the  use  of  1  to 
2  per  cent  of  permanganate  of  potash.  Fowls  are  treated  in 
the  following  manner :  The  nostrils  are  pressed  together 
between  thumb  and  forefinger  in  the  direction  of  the  beak  two 
or  three  times.  Pressure  should  also  be  applied  between 
nostrils  and  eyes  in  an  upward  direction.  This  massage  helps 
to  loosen  the  discharge  in  the  nostrils  and  eyes.  The  bird's 
head  is  then  plunged  into  the  solution  of  permanganate  of 
potash  for  20  or  30  seconds,  in  fact  the  head  may  be  kept 
under  the  solution  as  long  as  the  bird  can  tolerate  it.  The 
solution  is  thus  distributed  through  the  nostrils  and  other 
canals  and  has  an  astringent  and  slight  disinfecting  action. 
This  treatment  should  be  given  twice  a  day  and  continued 
until  all  SATnptoms  have  disappeared. 

"If  there  are  solid  tumors  in  the  eyelids,  they  should  be 
opened  so  that  the  skin  may  bleed  freely.  The  cheesy  matter 
should  be  removed  and  the  surrounding  membrane  touched 


164  Diseases  of  PonUry 

with  a  5  per  cent  carbolic  acid  or  silver  nitrate  solution,  and 
then  a  cotton  plug  put  in  again  to  prevent  the  cavity  frora 
healing  too  quickly.  We  have  cured  chickens  in  this  way  in 
about  a  fortnight. 

"As  all  these  methods  of  treatment  demand  a  good  deal 
of  time  and  care,  they  cannot  well  be  used  for  whole  flocks, 
but  the  more  valuable  fowls  may  be  treated  in  this  manner. 
Farmers  and  poultr\Tnen  should  first  try  the  permanganate 
of  potash  method  of  treatment  as  it  is  the  easiest  to  employ. 

"  Food  remedies  influence  roup  only  by  strengthening  the 
fowls  and  assisting  nature  to  throw  off  or  conquer  the 
disease." 

The  birds  which  are  being  treated  should  be  kept  in  a  dry, 
warm,  well  ventilated  room  with  good  nourishing  food.  The 
drinking  water  should  be  frequently  changed. 

Prognosis.  —  In  infected  flocks  this  disease  caused  a  direct 
annual  loss  of  10  to  15  per  cent  of  the  flock.  Also  many  birds 
contract  a  chronic  form  of  the  disease  which  aft'ects  them  for 
months  or  years.  Careful  individual  treatment  will  save  the 
lives  of  many  birds,  but  such  treatment  is  economically  in- 
advisable except  in  case  of  very  valuable  birds. 

Diphtheritic  Roup   (Avian  Diphtheria  or  Canker) 

As  previously  stated  this  disease  is  considered  by  several 
investigators  as  a  stage  or  a  form  of  the  same  disease  as  nasal 
roup.     There  is,  however,  some  good  evidence^  that  they  are 

^  For  instance,  in  the  Maine  Station  flock  occasional  cases  of 
nasal  roup  appeared  annually  ^vith  unfavorable  weather  conditions, 
but  there  were  never  any  false  membranes  formed.  About  five 
years  ago  some  new  stock  was  introduced.  A  few  months  later 
cases  of  typical  avian  diphtheria  appeared  in  these  birds  and  a 
little  later  in  other  birds  in  the^ame  pens.  This  disease  was  some- 
times associated  with  the  lesions  common  to  nasal  roup,  but  often 
the  two  diseases  were  quite  jeparate. 


Diseases  of  the  Resinratury  System  165 

separate  diseases  although  in  early  stages  they  cannot  be 
distinguished.  There  has  also  been  a  considerable  discussion 
of  the  possible  identity  of  avian  and  human  diphtheria,  but 
the  evidence  that  these  are  distinct  seems  conclusive.  Diph- 
theritic roup  is  distinguished  from  nasal  roup  by  the  forma- 
tion of  false  membranes  on  the  mucous  surface  of  tlie  nostrils, 
eyes,  mouth,  throat,  trachea  or  bronchi.  These  membranes 
are  a  tough,  grayish  or  yellowish  growth  and  adhere  very 
firmly  to  the  underlying  tissue. 

The  first  symptoms  appear  in  from  three  to  five  days  after 
exposure  to  contagion.  The  duration  of  the  disease  varies 
from  a  few  days  to  several  months.  Many  birds  in  the 
flock  appear  to  be  naturally  immune  or  sufficiently  vigorous 
to  overcome  the  disease  without  the  formation  of  the  charac- 
teristic lesions.  On  account  of  mild,  undetectable  cases 
diphtheritic  roup  is  very  hard  to  eradicate  without  sacrificing 
the  whole  flock,  disinfecting  the  premises,  and  starting  anew 
with  incubator  chicks  or  clean  purchased  stock. 

Diagnosis.  —  Following  the  excellent  account  given  by 
Salmon  it  may  be  said  that  diphtheria  begins  as  a  local  ir- 
ritation or  inflammation  at  some  point  on  the  internal  sur- 
face of  the  mouth,  throat,  nostril  or  eyes.  At  this  time  the 
general  health  is  not  yet  aft'ected,  and  there  is  nothing  but 
the  diphtheritic  deposit  to  indicate  that  the  bird  has  been 
attacked.  This  deposit  is  at  first  thin,  yellowish  or  whitish 
in  color,  and  gradually  becomes  thicker,  firmer,  and  more 
adherent,  so  that  considerable  force  is  required  to  remove  it. 
The  mucous  membrane  beneath  the  deposit  is  found,  when 
the  latter  is  removed,  to  be  inflamed,  ulcerated,  and  bleed- 
ing, but  it  is  soon  covered  by  a  new  deposit.  This  deposit 
is  called  a  false  membrane,  and  when  it  is  situated  where  the 
air  passes  over  it  in  breathing  ]^  dries,  becomes  uneven  and 
fissured,  and  its  color  changes  to  a  dark  brown. 

While  the  false  membranes  over  the  parts  first  aft'ected  are 


166 


Diseases  of  Poultry 


becoming  thicker,  the  inflammation  extends  to  the  adjoining 
surfaces,  and  new  diphtheritic  centers  develop,  uniting  with 
each  other  until  the  cheeks,  the  tongue,  the  palate,  the  throat, 
and  the  inside  of  the  nostrils  are  covered.     Very  often  the 


Tumor  with  hard  cheesy  center. 


Fibrinous  masses  over  mouth  and  tongue  and  protruding. 
Fig.  31.  —  Diphtheritic  roup  or  canker.     (After  Roebuck.) 


inflammation  extends  from  the  nostrils  to  the  eyes  and  the 
sacs  beneath  the  eyes,  and  sometimes  it  penetrates  the  air 
tubes  to  the  lungs  or  the  gullet  to  the  crop. 

This  extension  of  the  disease  leads  to  the  appearance  of 
other  symptoms.     The  inflammation  in  the  nostrils  causes 


Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  System  167 

sneezing  and  the  escape  of  a  thin,  watery  secretion  from  the 
nasal  openings ;  the  thick  false  membranes  fill  up  the  nasal 
passages  and  the  throat  and  obstruct  the  breathing ;  a  thick, 
viscid  secretion  collects  on  the  eyelids  and  glues  them  to- 
gether ;  the  sacs  under  the  eyes  fill  up,  and  swellings  are 
caused  which  disfigure  the  head ;  the  poison  which  is  pro- 
duced by  the  growth  of  the  microbe  beneath  the  false  mem- 
branes is  absorbed  and  affects  the  nervous  system,  causing 
dullness,  depression,  and  sleepiness.  The  affected  bird 
stands  with  the  neck  extended  and  the  beak  open  to  facilitate 
the  entrance  of  air  into  the  lungs,  and  from  the  corners  of  the 
mouth  there  hang  strings  of  thick,  tenacious,  grayish  mucus. 
A  characteristic  disagreeable  odor  appears  when  the  mem- 
branes begin  to  form,  and  as  they  increase  in  mass  it  becomes 
much  stronger  and  by  the  time  the  birds  are  in  the  condition 
described  above  it  is  very  objectionable. 

At  this  time,  which  may  be  three  to  five  days  from  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  first  symptoms,  the  condition  is  very  serious. 
Swallowing  is  difficult  or  impossible ;  the  breathing  is  so 
obstructed  that  hardly  sufficient  air  can  be  inhaled  to  sup- 
port life ;  the  head  is  swollen  ;  the  eyes  are  nearly  or  entirely 
closed ;  the  feathers  of  the  head,  neck,  and  breast  are  foul 
with  decomposing  secretions  from  the  nostrils  and  mouth ; 
there  is  considerable  fever ;  an  exhausting  diarrhea  sets  in ; 
there  is  rapid  loss  of  weight ;  the  comb  and  wattles  become 
pale  and  cold ;  the  temperature  of  the  body  finally  sinks 
below  the  normal ;  and  death  soon  follows. 

When  false  membranes  form  in  the  gullet,  crop,  and 
intestines,  there  is  a  rapid  aggravation  of  the  symptoms, 
an  intense  diarrhea,  and  the  escape  of  blood  with  the 
droppings.  This  type  of  the  disease  is  more  frequent 
with  water  fowl  than  other  birds.  Some  fowls  in  a  flock 
are  resistant,  and  after  a  few  days  of  illness  make  a  rapid 
recovery.     Others  remain  dull,  weak,  and  thin  in  flesh,  and 


168  Diseases  of  Poultry 

may  have  more  or  less  catarrh  and  difficulty  of  breathing 
for  a  long  time. 

Etiology.  —  The  cause  of  this  disease  like  that  of  nasal 
roup  is  still  a  disputed  question.^  All  of  the  organisms  re- 
ported as  causing  the  former  disease  have  also  been  credited 
by  one  or  another  investigator  with  producing  diphtheritic 
roup  also.  Whatever  the  nature  of  the  causal  organism  the 
disease  is  certainly  strictly  contagious.  It  never  appears 
except  as  a  result  of  infection  from  a  preA'ious  case. 

Methods  of  Infection.  —  Birds  may  be  infected  by  polluted 
food,  drinking  water  or  litter  and  probably  also  by  dust  con- 
taining particles  of  the  dried  secretions.  The  disease  may 
be  introduced  into  a  flock  by  introducing  infected  stock. 
Occasionally  the  infection  may  be  carried  on  implements  or 
on  the  shoes  of  persons  coming  from  infected  yards.  The 
first  symptoms  appear  in  from  three  to  five  days  after  ex- 
posure to  contagion. 

Treatment.  —  The  best  treatment  is  of  course  prevention. 
The  same  safe-guards  suggested  under  nasal  roup  are  also 
effective  against  diphtheria. 

Two  general  lines  of  treatment  for  diphtheritic  roup  have 
been  used  with  more  or  less  success.  (1)  Local  treatment  of 
the  diseased  parts  with  disinfectants,  and  (2)  vaccine  and 
serum  treatments.  The  cost  of  application  of  either  of  these 
makes  them  at  present  economically  inadvisable  for  ordinary 
stock. 

(1)  Disinfectant  Method.  —  In  early  stages  of  the  disease 
the  painting  of  the  diphtheritic  patches  with  tincture  of 
iodine  is  sometimes  sufficient.  If  the  false  membranes  per- 
sistently reappear,  as  they  are  very  likely  to  do,  they  may  be 
burned  away  with  50  to  75  per  cent  hydrochloric  acid  or  with 
silver  nitrate.     Great  care  should  be  taken  not  to  touch  un- 

1  Cf.  references  cited  supra,  p.  160. 


Diseases  uf  the  liespiratory  System  169 

affected  parts  of  the  mucous  membrane  as  such  wounds  are 
likely  to  be  infected  and  thus  become  the  seat  of  fresh  patches. 
After  thick  false  membranes  are  formed  it  is  necessary  to  re- 
move them  gently  before  applying  the  disinfectants.  After 
the  drastic  disinfectants  have  been  applied  to  the  lesions  the 
throat,  mouth  and  head  passages  may  be  disinfected  with 
one  of  the  reagents  recommended  for  catarrh  or  nasal  roup. 
The  potassium  permanganate  treatment  outlined  on  page  163 
is  the  easiest  to  apply. 

Some  workers  have  used  a  spray  of  oil  of  thyme,  oil  of 
eucalyptus  or  kerosene  oil  and  have  reported  favorably. 
Reidenbach  ^  tested  a  large  number  of  antiseptics  against 
fowl  diphtheria,  among  which  were  50  essential  oils.  He 
found  that  ajowan  oil  possesses  the  strongest  antiseptic 
action.  This  oil  is  obtained  from  the  fruit  of  Ptychotis  coptica, 
an  annual  plant  which  resembles  caraway  and  has  for  its 
habitat  Egypt,  Persia  and  the  East  Indies.  This  oil  is  on 
the  market  in  this  country  but  is  not  ordinarily  carried  by 
druggists. 

All  of  these  local  treatment  methods  are  unsatisfactory  in 
most  cases  because  the  germs  causing  the  disease  are  em- 
bedded deep  down  in  the  tissue  underlying  the  false  mem- 
branes. It  is  therefore  very  difficult  thoroughly  to  disinfect 
the  lesions.  The  tissues  injured  by  strong  disinfectants 
seem  especially  adapted  for  the  propagation  of  the  surviving 
pathogenic  organism. 

(2)  Vaccine  and  Serum  Treatments.  —  An  attack  of  avian 
diphtheria  confers  an  immunity,  the  duration  of  which  de- 
pends in  part  at  least  upon  the  severity  of  the  attack."^  The 
fact  of  this  acquired  immunity  suggests  the  possibility  of 
establishing  an  immunity  with  vaccine  and  of  treating  the 
disease  with  vaccine  or  serum.     Within  the  last  fifteen  years 

1  Reidenbach,  .J.,   Geflugel  Ztg.     (Leipzig),  Bd.  26,  p.  116,  1910. 
^  Sigwart,  H.,  loc.  cit. 


170  Diseases  of  Poultry 

a  number  of  experiments  in  this  line  have  been  conducted  both 
in  this  country  and  Europe.  Some  workers  have  tried  as  a 
curative  agent  the  antitoxin  prepared  for  human  diphtheria. 
Others  have  used  serum  prepared  from  small  mammals  and 
fowls  which  have  recovered  from  the  disease.  Still  others 
have  attempted  to  establish  an  immunity  in  healthy  fowls 
and  also  to  cure  diseased  birds  with  vaccines  prepared  from 
cultures  of  the  organisms  isolated  from  the  lesions.  Dif- 
ferent investigators  disagree  as  to  the  effectiveness  of  each  of 
these  methods  of  treatment.  The  disagreement  of  their 
results  may  be  due  to  the  variation  in  virulence  of  the  cul- 
tures with  which  they  worked. 

Hopeful  results  have  been  lately  obtained  in  this  country 
at  Ohio  State  University  and  at  Purdue.  The  following 
brief  account  of  the  preparation  of  the  vaccine  and  the  method 
of  treatment  used  successfully  at  Purdue  and  on  nearby  farms 
is  given  by  Philips.^ 

"Cures  and  methods  of  cure  for  roup  are  so  varied  and 
uniformly  unsatisfactory  that  it  was  thought  advisable  to 
experiment  with  roup  vaccine.  This  vaccine  was  first  made 
at  Ohio  State  University  and  proved  reasonably  satisfactory 
to  them. 

"The  method  of  making  vaccine  is  very  simple.  The 
first  process  is  to  take  cultures  from  under  the  ulcers  and 
grow  them  from  24  to  36  hours  on  neutral  agar  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  37.5  degrees  C.  Then  wash  off  the  organisms  in  a 
sterile  normal  salt  solution  and  attenuate  them  for  an  hour 
and  a  half  in  a  water  bath  at  64  degrees  C.  If  the  vaccine  is 
to  be  left  standing  it  is  advisable  to  make  it  one-half  per  cent 
acid  with  carbolic  acid,  as  this  acts  as  a  preservative. 

"The  method  of  standardization  is  the  most  difficult  part 

1  Philips,  A.  G.,  "A  Preliminary  Investigation  with  Roup."  Jour, 
of  the  Amer.  Assoc,  of  Inst,  and  Invest,  in  Poultry  Husbandry,  Vol.  1, 
No.  4,  pp.  28-31,  1915. 


Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  System  171 

and  requires  accuracy  and  careful  manipulation,  but  after 
one  becomes  accustomed  to  it  he  can  standardize  by  the  tur- 
bidity of  the  vaccine  with  enough  accuracy  to  be  correct  as 
is  needed  to  be  used  on  chickens.  The  turbidity  may  be 
compared  to  that  of  two  drops  of  milk  in  ten  cubic  centi- 
meters of  distilled  water. 

"The  average  dose  is  one  cubic  centimeter  given  sub- 
cutaneously  with  a  hypodermic  syringe.  The  most  con- 
venient place  to  inject  the  vaccine  is  under  the  skin  over  the 
region  of  the  breast.  This  need  not  be  repeated  in  immuniz- 
ing healthy  birds,  but  in  treating  sick  birds  a  second  or  third 
injection  may  be  necessary  every  five  days." 

This  method  of  treatment  is  not  yet  on  a  secure  scientific 
basis  and  it  cannot  be  used  in  practice  by  the  poultryman  or 
farmer  until  all  dou,bt  of  its  efficiency  is  removed  and  a 
reliable  vaccine  prepared  and  put  on  the  market.  If  this  is 
ever  accomplished,  treatment  with  vaccine  will  be  much 
cheaper  to  administer  and  much  more  efficient  than  the  local 
disinfection  of  lesions. 

Prognosis.  —  In  very  acute  cases  death  may  occur  in  two 
or  three  days.  More  often  even  in  fatal  cases  the  disease 
runs  for  two  or  three  weeks.  Recovery  may  be  complete  in 
two  or  three  weeks  or  an  individual  may  develop  a  chronic 
form  of  the  disease  which  continues  for  several  months.  If 
untreated  about  half  of  the  birds  which  contract  the  disease 
die. 

Pip   {Inflammation  of  the  Mouth) 

The  term  "pip"  as  used  by  poultrymen  evidently  does  not 
represent  a  separate  disease  but  is  the  result  of  mouth  breath- 
ing due  to  closure  of  the  nostrils  by  cold  or  catarrh.  The 
mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth  and  tongue  become  hard  and 
dry.  This  is  especially  true  at  the  end  of  the  tongue.  Mucous 
discharge  from  the  mouth  often  collects  and  dries  on  to  this 


172  Diseases  of  Poultry 

hardened  skin  at  the  tip  of  the  tongue.  Thus  scab  may  crack 
partly  away  from  the  tongue  exposing  a  raw  surface. 

Etiology.  —  It  would  appear  to  be  the  case  that  the  symp- 
toms above  described  originated  from  different  causes  in  dif- 
ferent cases.  The  trouble  may  be  due  to  specific  infection, 
though  a  particular  organism  has  not  yet  been  definitely  iso- 
lated as  the  cause.  In  some  cases  the  symptom  is  apparently 
purely  physiological,  arising  from  a  failure  of  the  mucus- 
secreting  glands  to  function  properly,  owing  to  a  lowered 
physiological  condition. 

Treatment.  —  The  essential  points  in  the  treatment  of  this 
diseased  condition  is  first  to  treat  the  primary  cause  (cold, 
catarrh,  etc.).  In  removing  the  scale  or  "pip"  gentle  meas- 
ures are  to  be  followed,  otherwise  a  raw  surface  likely  to 
ulcerate,  will  be  left.  It  is  better  to  keep  the  scab  wet  with 
an  equal  mixture  of  glycerine  and  water.  If  the  scab  comes 
off  leaving  a  raw  surface  this  should  be  treated  with  disin- 
fecting solutions  (see  p.  168)  and  then  with  glycerine. 

Prognosis.  —  Pip  is  associated  with  diseases  of  the  respira- 
tory organs  which  are  often  serious  and  sometimes  fatal.  It 
is  this  association  which  is  responsible  for  the  general  belief 
that  it  is  a  dangerous  malady.  In  itself  it  is  not  serious 
unless  the  mucous  membrane  is  torn  away  with  the  scab  and 
the  wound  becomes  infected. 

Canker 

Membranes  formed  in  diphtheritic  roup  are  sometimes 
called  canker,  but  there  are  frequently  found  cheesy  patches 
on  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth  or  tongue  which  are 
not  associated  with  roup.  These  growths  are  frequently,  at 
least,  the  result  of  a  traumatic  injury  to  the  membrane. 
Male  birds  frequently  have  canker  where  they  have  been 
picked  in  the  mouth  by  other  males  when  fighting.      The 


Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  System  173 

growths  are  made  up  almost  entirely  of  pus  germs.  These 
growths  should  probably  be  considered  as  suppurating 
wounds.  An  unhealthy  condition  of  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  mouth  due  to  digestive  disorders  is  sometimes  accom- 
panied by  spots  of  canker. 

A  good  treatment  for  canker  is  undiluted  creolin  applied 
with  a  cotton  swab.  The  swab  should  be  held  against 
each  sore  for  a  short  time.  The  whole  surface  of  each  patch 
should  be  treated.  Another  good  treatment  is  to  wash  the 
sores  with  hydrogen  peroxide  1  part  and  water  1  part. 

Thrush 

This  term  is  also  sometines  incorrectly  applied  to  the  false 
membranes  of  diphtheria,  but  there  are  at  least  two  cases  of 
true  thrush  on  record.  That  is,  in  two  cases  microscopic 
examination  has  shown  that  the  patches,  which  in  both  these 
cases  were  in  the  lower  part  of  the  esophagus  and  crop,  were 
made  up  of  spores  and  filaments  of  the  fungus  Saccharomyces 
albicans.  This  fungus  causes  thrush  in  children  and  calves. 
This  disease  may  also  occasionally  affect  the  mouth.  It  is 
impossible  to  distinguish  it  from  other  diseases  causing  simi- 
lar formations  except  by  microscopic  examination.  The 
treatment  is  the  same  as  for  canker. 

Aspergillosis  (Mycosis  of  the  Air  Passages) 

This  is  a  very  common  disease  of  poultry,  often  mistaken 
for  tuberculosis.  In  adult  fowls  it  is  a  frequent  cause  of  the 
condition  known  as  "going  light,"  while  in  young  chickens 
it  probably  ranks  next  to  white  diarrhea  as  a  lethal  agent. 

The  discussion  of  this  disease  here  relates  primarily  to 
adult  fowls.  Aspergillosis  in  young  chicks  is  treated  in 
Chapter  XIX. 


174  Diseases  of  Poultry 

Diagnosis. — ^In  early  stages  of  the  disease  the  bird  appears 
normal.  Later  there  is  a  loss  of  appetite  and  an  abnormal 
thirst.  The  bird  becomes  inactive,  standing  with  head 
down,  eyes  closed,  wings  dropped  and  plumage  roughened. 
There  is  an  increase  in  the  rate  of  respiration  and  a  rise  in 
body  temperature.  The  breathing  becomes  labored  and  is 
accompanied  by  a  rattling  sound  caused  by  the  vibration  of 
the  mucus  which  collects  in  the  trachea  and  bronchi.  Diar- 
rhea sets  in.  The  bird  becomes  emaciated.  Death  from 
toxaemia,  exhaustion  or  sometimes  from  asphyxiation  may 
occur  in  from  1  to  8  weeks. 

Two  types  of  lesions  are  found  at  autopsy.  The  first  type 
is  whitish  or  greenish  yellow  membranous  patches  on  the 
mucous  lining  of  the  air  passages.  They  are  most  often  found 
in  the  trachea,  bronchi,  small  passages  of  the  Imigs  and  large 
air  sacs.  Occasionally  they  also  occur  on  the  walls  of  the 
air  sacs  in  the  interior  of  the  bones.  Lameness  with  swollen 
and  inflamed  joints  results  from  this  condition.  They  are 
also  sometimes  found  upon  the  mucous  membranes  of  the 
alimentary  canal.  The  mucous  membrane  underneath  these 
patches  is  thickened  and  inflamed.  The  patch  itself  is  a 
thick,  fibrous,  membrane-like  mass  which  contains  fungal 
filaments.  These  filaments  bear  spores  at  the  surface  of  the 
false  membranes.  Li  fact  these  patches  represent  the  free 
grow^th  of  the  mold  on  the  surface  of  the  mucous  membrane, 
having  very  much  the  appearance  which  it  presents  when 
growing  outside  of  the  body  on  dead  organic  matter.  The 
greenish  color  of  the  diseased  area  is  due  to  the  greenish  fila- 
ments of  the  mold  or  fungus  growing  upon  its  surface.  The 
filaments  are  not  all  on  the  surface,  however,  but  they  pene- 
trate deeply  into  the  tissues,  causing  inflammation  and  swell- 
ing, which  obstructs  the  respiration,  and  at  the  same  time 
they  apparently  produce  a  poison,  which  causes  the  general 
depression  and  fever. 


Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  System  175 

Lesions  of  the  second  type  are  whitish  or  yellowish  tuber- 
cles resembling  the  tubercles  of  tuberculosis.  They  vary  in 
size  from  the  head  of  a  pin  to  a  large  pea.  The  tubercles  are 
embedded  in  the  tissues  of  the  walls  of  the  air  passages,  in 
the  lungs  and  sometimes  also  in  the  liver,  spleen  and  kid- 
neys. Each  tubercle  contains  a  growth  of  mold  at  the  cen- 
ter which  is  inclosed  by  a  wall  of  animal  cells. 

A  certain  diagnosis  of  aspergillosis  requires  the  identifica- 
tion of  fungus  filaments  and  spores  within  the  lesions. 
This  is  of  course  impossible  during  the  life  of  the  bird. 

Etiology.  —  The  disease  is  caused  by  molds  of  the  genus 
Aspergillus  which  grow  on  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  air 
passage.  The  four  parasitic  species  in  order  of  their  impor- 
tance are  Aspergillus  fumigatus,  Aspergillus  nigrescens,  Asper- 
gillus glaucus,  Aspergillus  candidus.  The  appearance  of  one 
of  these  molds,  wheii  greatly  magnified,  is  shown  in  Fig.  32. 

These  molds  and  their  spores  occur  on  dead  organic  ma- 
terial like  straw,  grain,  etc.  They  are  inhaled  in  breathing  or 
swallowed  with  the  food.  This  being  the  case  the  importance 
of  avoiding  musty  litter,  and  moldy  or  musty  grain  of  all 
kinds  is  apparent.  As  with  most  other  diseases  the  resistance 
of  the  individual  against  infection  is  here  an  important  mat- 
ter. Some  fowls  will  be  able  to  stand  musty  litter  and  grain 
without  any  harm,  while  others  will  promptly  develop  asper- 
gillosis. When  once  present  in  a  flock  aspergillosis  is  prob- 
ably transmitted  from  generation  to  generation  through  the 
eggs. 

Treatment.  —  The  disease  is  prevented  by  having  clean, 
dry,  well  ventilated  houses  and  avoiding  the  use  of  moldy 
litter  or  grain.  Vigorous  birds  under  sanitary  conditions  are 
fairly  resistant. 

Since  the  disease  probably  sometimes  spreads  from  bird  to 
bird,  aflFected  individuals  should  be  killed  or  isolated  and  the 
bodies  of  dead  birds  burned.     Salmon  says  that  "sometimes 


176 


Diseases  of  Poult ri/ 


affected  birds  may  be  saved  by  applying  flowers  of  sulphur 
or  tincture  of  iodine  to  the  diseased  patches  seen  in  the  mouth 


'VlV-i 


Fig.  32.  —  Aspergillus  fumigatus.     Greatly  enlarged.     (After  Mohler   and 
Buckley.) 

and  throat,  and  causing  the  birds  to  inhale  the  vapor  of  tar 
water  or  turpentine.  Tar  water  is  obtained  by  stirring 
2  tablespoonfuls  of  wood  tar  in  a  quart  of  warm  water  and 
letting  the  mixture  stand  for  a  few  hours.     Then  the  birds 


Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  System  111 

are  taken  into  a  closed  room,  where  the  tar  water  is  poured, 
a  small  quantity  at  a  time,  on  a  hot  brick  or  stone  until  the 
atmosphere  of  the  room  is  well  charged  with  the  vapor." 

This  treatment  is  of  value  only  when  the  lesions  are  of  the 
open  type  first  described  and  when  these  are  located  in  parts 
of  the  air  passages  accessible  to  the  fungicides. 

Prognosis.  —  The  disease  in  adult  fowls  is  ordinarily  not 
recognized  as  such  until  an  affected  bird  comes  to  autopsy, 
at  which  time  the  prognosis  is  certainly  extremely  unfavor- 
able. So  far  as  concerns  ridding  a  poultry  plant  of  the  dis- 
ease, however,  the  outlook  is  favorable  if  energetic  sanitary 
measures  along  the  lines  indicated  above  are  applied. 

Congestion  of  the  Lungs 

Congestion  of  the  lungs  is  a  distention  of  the  blood  vessels 
which  make  up  the  vascular  portion  of  those  organs.  The 
pressure  of  these  distended  vessels  may  close  the  smaller  air 
passages,  or  a  vessel  may  burst,  filling  the  bronchi.  In  either 
case  the  patient  soon  suffocates. 

Diagnosis.  —  The  symptoms  of  this  disease  are  difficult 
rapid  breathing,  sleepiness  and  an  indisposition  to  move.  A 
bloody  mucus  sometimes  flows  from  the  mouth.  The  comb  is 
dark  red  or  bluish  from  lack  of  ox^'gen  in  the  blood.  Symp- 
toms appear  suddenly  and  death  occurs  within  a  few  hours. 

Etiology.  —  This  disease  is  caused  by  chilling  the  surface  of 
the  body.  This  contracts  the  surface  vessels  and  a  large 
volume  of  blood  is  sent  to  the  internal  organs.  The  pressure 
on  the  small  elastic  vessels  of  the  lungs  is  too  great  and  they 
either  close  the  air  passages  by  pressing  against  them  or  the 
vessel  walls  are  ruptured  by  the  internal  pressure  and  the  air 
passages  become  filled  with  blood.  This  disease  most  often 
occurs  in  denuded  birds  (hens  during  molting  or  young  birds 
which  have  failed  to  feather  out)  or  small  chicks  which  have 


178  Diseases  of  Poultry 

been  exposed  to  cold  or  allowed  to  run  out  in  cold,  wet 
weather. 

Treatment.  —  The  rapid  course  of  the  disease  makes  treat- 
ment impracticable.  Prevention  is  the  only  cure.  Birds 
should  be  well  nourished  with  plenty  of  green  food  and  should 
be  especially  protected  from  cold  and  wet  when  molting. 
Also  chicks  which  are  in  a  stage  between  down  (chick)  and 
Juvenal  feathers  need  special  protection.  This  disease  often 
attacks  brooder  chicks  and  indicates  something  wrong  with 
the  brooding.  The  cause  should  be  immediately  sought  out 
and  removed,  or  considerable  loss  will  follow  from  continued 
exposure  of  the  flock. 

Prognosis. —  This  disease  is  usually  fatal  in  a  few  minutes 
or  hours  after  its  symptoms  are  noted.  According  to  Salmon 
the  patient  sometimes  develops  pneumonia. 

Pneumonia 

This  disease  is  a  step  beyond  congestion  of  the  lungs.  The 
vessel  are  not  only  distended  but  liquid  escapes  through  their 
walls  and  coagulates  in  the  air  spaces.  The  lung  of  a  chick 
dead  of  pneumonia  is  dark  colored  and  firm  and  heavier  than 
water.  A  normal  lung  floats  but  a  lung  filled  with  this  coagu- 
lated serum  sinks. 

Diagnosis.  —  The  symptoms  resemble  those  of  congestion 
of  the  lungs.  The  bird  stands  with  its  head  drawn  back,  its 
wings  down,  and  its  plumage  ruffled.  The  comb  is  usually 
very  dark.  Respiration  is  rapid,  labored  and  apparently 
painful.  There  is  a  loss  of  appetite,  and  abnormal  thirst 
and  constipation.  A  thick,  adhesive,  and  often  bloody 
mucus  is  sometimes  discharged  from  the  nostrils  and  mouth. 
In  such  cases  there  is  usually  coughing. 

Post-mortem  examination  shows  that  either  the  bronchi 
are  nearly  filled  with  thick  mucus  or  the  smaller  air  passages 


Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  System  179 

of  the  lungs  are  filled  with  clotted  serum.  The  first  form  of 
the  disease  is  called  broncho-pneumonia.  In  these  cases 
death  from  suflbcation  has  taken  place  while  the  vascular 
area  of  the  lungs  is  little  affected.  This  is  the  form  of  the 
disease  which  usually  follows  bronchitis.  There  is  usually 
also  some  clotted  serum  in  the  smaller  passages.  The  second 
form  is  known  as  croupous  pneumonia.  This  form  usually 
follow^s  congestion  of  the  lungs  and  often  develops  very  soon 
after  severe  chilling.  The  lungs  are  dark  in  color  and  solid. 
The  blood  vessels  are  filled  with  blood  and  the  air  spaces  are 
filled  W'ith  clotted  serum.  A  piece  of  such  a  lung  will  sink 
when  dropped  into  water. 

Etiology.  —  The  cause  of  pneumonia  in  birds  is  not  known. 
The  similarity  of  this  disease  to  human  pneumonia,  both  in 
the  circumstances  of  its  occurrence  and  in  its  lesions,  has  led 
to  the  inference  that  the  cause  is  also  similar.  The  disease  is 
probably  caused  by  a  bacterium  which  is  very  often  present 
in  the  normal  air  passages  but  wdiich  is  harmless  except  when 
there  is  congestion. 

Treatment.  —  Ordinarily  it  will  not  be  advisable  to  treat 
this  disease.  .1  cure  is  unusual  and  involves  such  an  amount 
of  care  and  nursing  as  to  make  it  a  most  unprofitable  proposition. 
The  disease  can  be  guarded  against  by  keeping  the  flock  in 
good  condition  and  preventing  exposure.  Some  cases  will 
recover  if  removed  to  a  warm  w^ell  ventilated  room  and  fed 
milk  or  raw  eggs  supplemented  later,  if  the  bird  improves, 
with  cod  liver  oil  and  chopped  beef. 

Various  medicines,  especially  stimulants,  have  been  recom- 
mended. One  drop  of  tincture  of  aconite  every  two  hours 
given  in  egg  or  milk  is  said  to  relieve  the  hard  breathing.  As 
a  stimulant  2  drops  of  spirits  of  camphor  and  10  drops  of 
brandy  in  a  teaspoonful  of  w^arm  milk  may  be  given  3  or  4 
times  a  day.  If  the  comb  becomes  dark  and  the  bird  is 
evidently  failing  rapidly  add  one  drop  of  tincture  of  digitalis 
to  the  above  medicine. 


180  Diseases  of  Poultry 

To  reduce  the  congested  condition  of  the  lungs  a  counter 
irritation  may  be  appHed  to  the  skin  of  the  back  over  the 
region  of  the  lungs.  This  may  be  done  by  raising  up  the 
feathers  and  painting  the  skin  with  tincture  of  iodine. 

Prognosis.  —  This  disease  is  more  easily  prevented  than 
cured.  A  number  of  cases  recover  if  placed  in  a  warm  dry 
room.  Treatment  is  of  little  value.  A  large  percentage  of 
the  birds  die. 

Tuberculosis 

This  disease  is  discussed  in  Chapter  IX.  It  is  primarily 
a  disease  of  the  abdominal  viscera.  Lesions  occur  also  in  the 
lungs  in  about  one  case  in  five.  The  infection  of  the  lungs  is 
usually  of  secondary  origin. 

The  Air-Sac  Mite 

A  species  of  mite  (Cytodites  nudu^)  infects  the  air-sacs  and 
bronchi  of  poultry. 

Diagnosis.  — When  the  birds  are  not  badly  infested  there 
are  no  external  symptoms.  If  badly  infested  the  bird  may 
become  anaemic  and  listless  and  finally  die  of  exhaustion.  Or, 
if  the  air  passages  are  seriously  obstructed  by  the  collection 
of  parasites  and  mucus,  there  will  be  a  rattling  in  the  throat 
and  coughing,  and  death  may  result  from  suffocation.  The 
presence  of  the  parasites  is  often  found  only  on  examination 
of  dead  birds.  They  appear  as  a  yellow  or  white  dust,  each 
particle  of  which  is  a  mite.  If  closely  watched  the  particles 
may  be  seen  to  move. 

Etiology.  —  The  mite  probably  enters  the  air-sacs  by 
crawling  in  the  nostrils  and  finding  its  way  down  the  trachea 
and  bronchi  to  the  sacs.  The  parasites  are  able  to  live  only 
a  short  time  outside  the  bird's  body.  The  mouth  parts  of 
these  mites  are  modified  into  sucking  tubes.     They  attack  the 


Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  System 


181 


mucous  membrane  of  the  air-sacs  and  bronchi.  When  the 
number  of  parasites  is  small  they  cause  no  serious  inconven- 
ience to  the  bird.  When  there  are  a  large  number  present 
they  may  cause  inflammation  of  the  membrane  and  secretion 
of  mucus  or  they  may  seriously  obstruct  the  air  passages. 

Treatment.  —  Treatment  of  infested  birds  is  probably  use- 
less. Feeding  sulphur  with  the  food  or  compelling  the  birds 
to  inhale  the  fumes  of  burning  sulphur  or  burning  tar  or  the 
steam  of  boiling  tar  water  has 
been  recommended. 

If  a  flock  is  infested  with 
this  parasite  it  is  best  when 
possible  to  start  a  new  flock 
with  incubator  chicks  raised 
on  a  new  range  and  carefully 
protected  from  infection  from 
the  old  flock.  Or  stock  may 
be  purchased  from  an  un- 
infested  flock.  Birds  with 
this  parasite  should  not  be 
bought  or  sold  for  breeding 
or  laying  purposes,  as  the  Fig 
flock  into  which  they  are  in- 
troduced will  become  infested 
from  them.  Since  this  parasite  cannot  live  long  outside 
the  bird's  body,  the  houses,  runs,  etc.,  do  not  remain  in- 
fested long  after  all  the  diseased  birds  have  been  removed. 

Prognosis.  —  A  bird  once  infected  is  probably  never  free 
from  the  parasite  but  may  live  a  long  time  little  harmed  by 
its  presence. 


33.  —  Cytodites  nudus.  The 
air-sac  mite.  Greatly  enlarged. 
(After  Theobald.) 


CHAPTER   XII 

Diseases  of  the  Circulatory  System 

There  are  two  classes  of  diseases  treated  in  this  chapter : 
(1)  diseases  of  the  organs  of  circulation  (the  heart  and  blood 
vessels),  and  (2)  diseases  of  the  blood. 

DISEASES    OF   THE    ORGANS    OF    CIRCULATION 

Pericarditis  {Inflammation  of  the  Pericardium.,  Dropsy  of  the 
Heart  Sac) 

This  disease  is  often  found  associated  with  other  diseases 
of  the  circulatory  system  and  with  diseases  of  the  lungs  and 
air-sacs  and  also  with  soreness  of  the  joints. 

Diagnosis.  —  A  differential  diagnosis  of  this  disease  during 
life  is  not  usually  possible.  Salmon  gives  the  following 
symptoms:  "There  is  great  weakness,  difficult  breathing, 
the  head  being  thrown  backwards,  and  the  breath  drawn 
through  the  mouth  in  order  to  obtain  sufficient  air.  If 
forced  to  run  the  bird  soon  falls.  In  a  case  observed  by 
Hill  there  was  tumultuous  action  of  the  heart  and  occasional 
spasms."  Examination  of  a  bird  dead  from  this  disease 
shows  the  heart  sac  full  of  serous  liquid  and  sometimes  the 
cavity  is  divided  by  false  membranes  which  may  attach  to 
the  heart  as  well  as  to  the  pericardium. 

Etiolbgy.  —  The  causes  of  this  inflammation  are  not  known. 
It  may  result  from  exposure  to  cold  or  dampness. 

Treatment.  —  Treatment  is  impossible  since  the  disease 
182 


Diseases  of  the  Circulatory  System  183 

cannot  be  diagnosed  until  after  death.  Successive  cases 
in  the  same  flock  indicate  exposure  of  the  flock  to  cold  or 
wet  weather  or  to  confining  the  birds  in  insanitary  houses. 
These  conditions  should  be  remedied.  Salmon  also  recom- 
mends in  such  cases  "  2  to  4  grains  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  to 
each  bird  daily  in  the  drinking  water." 

Endocarditis  {Inflanwiation  of  the  Internal  Membranes  of  the 
Heart) 

In  the  examination  of  dead  birds  it  is  sometimes  found 
that  the  membrane  lining  the  heart  is  reddened  and  coagu- 
lated lymph  may  adhere  to  it.  Little  is  known  of  this  dis- 
ease in  fowls.  It  cannot  be  distinguished  from  pericarditis 
except  by  an  examination  of  the  heart.  The  cause  and  treat- 
ment suggested  for  that  disease  probably  apply  equally  in 
these  cases. 

Myocarditis  diphtheritica 

According  to  Ziirn,  Bollinger  has  described  a  bacterial 
disease  of  the  heart  and  blood  vessels  of  fowls  and  pigeons. 
The  disease  is  caused  by  a  bacterium  which  resembles  the 
bacterium  of  roup.  The  disease  attacks  the  lining  mem- 
brane of  the  heart  and  blood  vessels,  causing  inflammation 
and  the  breaking  down  of  the  tissue.  It  especially  aft'ects 
the  valves  of  the  heart  and  aorta,  where  round  or  oval 
colonies  of  the  bacteria  are  found  on  the  membrane.  In 
these  patches  fibrin  and  red  and  white  corpuscles  are  mingled 
with  the  organisms.  The  walls  of  the  small  vessels  of  the 
lungs,  liver,  spleen,  kidneys  and  intestines  are  also  affected. 
The  liver,  spleen,  and  kidneys  are  enlarged.  The  bacteria 
are  numerous  in  these  organs  as  well  as  in  the  blood. 

Little  is  known  of  the  frequence  of  the  occurrence  of  this 
disease  and  nothing  of  methods  of  treatment. 


184  Duieases  of  Poultry 

Enlargement  of  the  Heart  (Hypertrophy) 

The  heart  of  a  fowl  is  sometimes  enlarged.  According  to 
Cadeac  this  enlargement  most  frequently  affects  the  right 
side  of  the  heart.     The  muscle  may  be  fatty  and  degenerate. 

Diagnosis.  —  The  distinctive  symptom  of  this  disease  is 
a  very  rapid  beating  of  the  heart. 

Etiology.  —  The  cause  of  this  hypertrophy  of  the  heart 
muscle  is  not  known,  but  it  is  probably  due  to  some  derange- 
ment in  the  nutrition  of  the  muscle.  The  palpitations  are 
increased  by  excitement  or  fright. 

Treatment.  —  The  disease  is  not  usually  recognized  while 
the  bird  is  alive.     Treatment  is  therefore  not  possible. 

Prognosis.  —  A  hypertrophied  heart  may  function  for  a 
long  time.  The  violent  beating  may  cause  rupture  of  a 
blood  vessel ;  sometimes  several  vessels  are  ruptured  at 
the  same  time. 

Rupture  of  the  Heart  and  Large  Blood  Vessels 

Internal  hemorrhage  due  to  the  rupture  of  the  heart  or 
large  blood  vessels  often  occurs  in  full  blooded  fowls. 

Diagnosis.  —  The  bird  becomes  weak  and  drowsy,  passes 
into  a  comatose  condition  and  dies  with  the  characteristic 
appearance  associated  with  bleeding  to  death. 

Etiology.  —  In  full  blooded  fowls  any  excitement  or  over- 
exertion which  causes  an  increase  in  the  rate  of  heart  beat 
and  an  increased  blood  pressure  may  result  in  a  rupture  of 
the  heart  or  one  of  the  large  vessels. 

Treatment.  —  The  accident  cannot  be  predicted  and  treat- 
ment is  impossible. 

Prognosis.  —  The  bird  dies  in  a  short  time. 


Diseases  of  the  Circulatory  System  185 

Thrombosis 

This  disease  is  characterized  by  the  clotting  of  the  blood 
in  the  great  blood  vessels  and  sometimes  also  in  the  heart. 
Sometimes  the  corpuscles  settle  out  of  the  serum  so  that  a 
part  of  the  clot  is  clear. 

Diagnosis.  —  This  condition  is  not  capable  of  diagnosis 
except  at  autopsy.  Birds  which  show  this  condition,  how- 
ever, are  often  those  which  have  been  sick  several  weeks. 
They  are  usually  in  poor  flesh  and  a  gradual  loss  of  appetite 
is  often  noted  for  some  weeks  before  death  occurs. 

Etiology.  —  The  cause  of  this  disease  is  unknown. 

Treatment.  —  As  the  disease  is  only  recognized  at  autopsy 
no  treatment  is  possible. 

LeukoBmia 

Various  cases  of  an  alteration  in  the  number  of  white 
corpuscles  in  the  blood  of  fowls  have  been  described.  Ac- 
cording to  Warthin  ^  in  normal  hen's  blood  the  proportion 
of  red  blood  corpuscles  to  white  is  105-225  : 1,  and  only  14 
per  cent  of  the  white  cells  are  large  lymphocytes,  while  in 
leukaemia  of  fowls  the  proportion  of  red  to  white  cells  may 
be  less  than  2  to  1  and  a  differential  count  of  the  white  cells 
shows  that  there  may  be  84.5  per  cent  large  lymphocytes. 
The  tissue  changes  consist  in  tumorous  nodules  and  infiltra- 
tion of  lymphoid  cells  in  the  liver,  spleen,  bone  marrow  and 
other  organs. 

From  the  literature  it  appears  that  investigators  have 
found  several  different  blood  diseases  which  show  the  blood 
picture    described    above.     Hirschfeld    and    Jacoby  ^    and 

1  Warthin,  A.  S.,  "  Leukemia  of  the  Common  Fowl."  Jour. 
Infect.  Diseases,  Vol.  4,  No.  3,  pp.  369-381,  1907. 

2  Hirschfeld,  H.,  and  Jacoby,  M.,  Berlin.  Klin.  Wchnschr. 
Bd.  46,  pp.  159,  160,  1909. 


186  Diseases  of  Poultry 

Burckliardt  ^  have  found  such  a  condition  associated  with 
the  presence  of  tubercle  bacilU  in  the  blood.  This  was  found 
both  in  spontaneous  and  exjjerimental  cases  of  tuberculosis. 

EUerman  and  Bang  -  found  this  condition  in  cases  which 
were  transmissible  to  other  fowls  by  a  filterable  virus  in- 
jectefl  intravenously.  This  disease  ran  a  chronic  course. 
The  typical  leukaemic  condition  was  reached  about  three 
months  after  the  inoculation. 

The  only  disease  of  this  group  which  seems  to  be  of  any 
economic  importance  is  infectious  leukjiemia  or  fowl  typhoid, 
first  flescribed  by  INIoore.'^  The  relation  of  this  disease  to 
human  typhoid  is  discussed  on  page  111. 

Infectious  Leukcemia  or  Fowl  Typhoid 

This  is  a  bacterial  disease  often  mistaken  for  fowl  cholera 
but  caused  by  a  different  species  of  bacteria  and  the  lesions 
produced  are  somewhat  different. 

Diagnosis.  —  The  following  symptomatology  is  quoted 
from  INIoore :  "From  the  statement  of  the  owners  of  the 
fowls  in  the  different  outbreaks  and  from  the  appearance  of 
those  in  which  the  disease  was  artificially  produced,  little 
can  be  positively  recorded  concerning  the  distinctive  or 
characteristic  symptoms.  The  only  fowl  examined  ante- 
mortem  from  the  natural  outbreaks  was  first  seen  only  a 
few  hours  before  death,  when  it  was  unable  to  stand.  If 
held  in  an  upright  position,  the  head  hung  down.  There 
was  a  marked  anaemic  condition  of  the  mucosa  of  the  head. 

^  Burekhardt,  J.  L.,  Ztschr.  Immunitatsf.  u.  Expt.  Ther.  Bd. 
14,  pp.  544-604,  1912. 

2  Ellerman,  V.,  and  Bang,  O.,  Ztschr.  Hyg.  u.  Infektionskrank. 
Bd.  63,  pp.  231-272,  1909. 

'Moore,  V.  A.,  "Infectious  Leukcemia  in  Fowls  —  a  Bacterial 
Disease  Frequently  Mistaken  for  Cholera."  Ann.  Rept.  Bur.  An. 
Ind.,  1895-1896,  pp.  185-205. 


Diseases  of  the  Circulatory  System  187 

It  had  an  elevation  of  nearly  3  degrees  of  temperature.  An 
examination  of  the  blood  showed  a  marked  diminution  in 
the  nimiber  of  red  corpuscles  and  an  increase  in  the  number 
of  white  ones.  In  the  disease  produced  artificially  by  feed- 
ing cultures  of  the  specific  organism  there  was  in  most  cases 
a  marked  drowsiness  and  general  debility  manifested  from 

1  to  4  days  before  death  occurred.  The  period  during  which 
the  prostration  was  complete  varied  from  a  few  hours  to 
two  days.  The  mucous  membranes  and  skin  about  the 
head  became  pale.  There  was  an  elevation  of  from  1  to  4 
degrees  of  temperature.     The  fever  was  of  a  continuous  type. 

"Although  the  course  of  the  disease  in  the  different  fowls 
was  usually  constant,  there  were  many  variations.  In  a 
few  individuals  the  time  required  for  fatal  results  was  from 

2  to  3  weeks,  but  ordinarily  death  occurred  in  about  8  days 
after  feeding  the  virus,  the  rise  in  temperature  being  detected 
about  the  third  day  and  external  symptoms  about  the  fifth 
or  sixth,  occasionally  not  until  a  few  hours  before  death. 
The  symptoms  observed  in  the  cases  produced  by  feeding 
correspond  with  those  described  by  the  owners  of  affected 
flocks." 

Moore  found  the  only  constant  lesions  to  be  in  the  blood 
and  liver.  The  change  in  the  blood  as  noted  above  was  a 
decrease  in  the  number  of  red  and  an  increase  in  the  num- 
ber of  white  cells.  The  change  in  the  liver  is  described  by 
Moore  as  follows : 

"The  liver  was  somewhat  enlarged  and  dark  colored, 
excepting  in  a  few  cases  in  which  the  disease  was  produced 
by  intravenous  injections.  A  close  inspection  showed  the 
surface  to  be  sprinkled  with  minute  grayish  areas.  The 
miscroscopic  examination  showed  the  blood  spaces  to  be 
distended.  The  hepatic  cells  were  frequently  changed,  so 
that  they  stained  very  feebly,  and  not  infrequently  the  cells 
were  observed  in  which  the  liver  cells  appeared  to  be  dead 


188 


Diseases  of  Poultry 


and  the  intervening  spaces  infiltrated  with  round  cells.  The 
changes  in  the  hepatic  tissue  are  presumably  secondary  to 
the  engorgement  of  the  organ  with  blood." 

Dawson's  diagnosis  of  the  disease  (An.  Rep.  Bur.  An. 
Ind.,  1898,  p.  350)  differs  somewhat  from  the  one  given  by 
Moore. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  distinguish  this  disease  from  fowl 
cholera  except  by  identifying  the  bacteria  which  produce 
the  diseases.  Moore  contrasts  the  characteristic  lesions  in 
the  appended  columns : 


Foivl  cholera 


Infectious  leukcemia 


1.  Duration     of     the     disease 

from    a    few     hours     to 
several  days. 

2.  Elevation  of  temperature. 

3.  Diarrhea. 

4.  Intestines  deeply  reddened. 

5.  Intestinal    contents    liquid, 

muco-purulent,   or  blood 
stained. 

6.  Heart  dotted  with   eeehy- 

moses. 


7.  Lungs  affected,  hyperaemic 

or  pneumonic. 

8.  Specific    organisms    appear 

in  large  numbers  in  the 
blood  and  organs. 

9.  Blood  pale  (cause  not  deter- 

mined). 

10.    Condition  of  leucocytes  not 
determined. 


1.  Duration     of     the     disease 

from  a  few  hours  to 
several  days. 

2.  Elevation    of    temperature. 

3.  Diarrhea  very  rare. 

4.  Intestines  pale. 

5.  Intestinal  contents  normal 

in  consistency. 

6.  Heart     usually     pale     and 

dotted  with  grayish 
points,  due  to  ceU  in- 
filtration. 

7.  Lungs  normal,  excepting  in 

modified  cases. 

8.  Specific  organisms  compara- 

tively few  in  the  blood 
and  organs. 

9.  Blood         pale,         marked 

diminution   in   the   num- 
ber  of  red   corpuscles. 
10.    Increase  in  the  number  of 
leucocytes. 


Attention  should  be  called  to  the  fact  that  as  yet  there 
seems  not  to  have  been  a  careful  study  of  the  condition  of 
the  blood  in  fowl  cholera.     Salmon  observed  many  changes 


Diseases  of  the  Circulatory  System  189 

in  this  fluid  which  may  have  been  similar  to  or  identical 
with  those  herein  recorded. 

On  page  201  of  Moore's  paper  he  gives  the  method  of  differ- 
entiating the  two  bacteria.  This  is,  of  course,  dependent  on 
microscopic  examination  and  cultural  tests.  A  full  descrip- 
tion of  Bacterium  sanguinariuvi  is  given  by  Moore  on  pages 
188-191  of  the  paper  cited  above. 

Etiology.  —  The  disease  is  caused  by  a  non-motile,  rod- 
shaped  bacterium  {Bacterium  sanguinarium) .  This  bacte- 
rium causes  the  disease  when  injected  into  the  blood  or 
when  fed.  In  a  few  cases  fowls  are  known  to  have  con- 
tracted the  disease  by  picking  up  the  droppings  of  infected 
fowls. 

Moore  says :  "  This  disease  of  fowls  has  not  been  found  in 
flocks  where  a  good  sanitary  regime  has  been  enforced.  It 
is  highly  probable  that  it  is  a  filth  disease,  being  dependent 
upon  unfavorable  environments  quite  as  much  as  the  specific 
organism  for  the  ability  to  run  a  rapidly  fatal  course  and  of 
spreading  to  the  entire  flock." 

Treatment.  —  Prevention  is  the  only  known  treatment. 
A  maintenance  of  generally  sanitars^  conditions  and  the 
avoidance  of  the  introduction  of  diseased  birds  are  effectual. 
If  the  disease  appears  in  the  flock  separate  the  diseased  birds, 
disinfect  the  premises,  and  place  the  flock  under  sanitary 
conditions.  The  disease  will  probably  disappear,  as  it  is 
difficult  experimentally  to  maintain  an  infection  when  the 
birds  are  kept  under  sanitary  conditions. 

Prognosis.  —  Diseased  birds  usually  die  in  from  a  few 
hours  to  two  weeks,  but  they  may  recover. 

The  Sleepy  Disease  {Apoplectiform  septiccemia) 

This  parasitic  blood  disease  is  apparently  rare. 
Diagnosis.  —  The  most  striking  symptom  is  sleepiness. 


190  Diseases  of  Poultry 

According  to  Dammann  and  Mane^old  ^  the  affected  fowls 
show  a  roughness  of  plumage,  swollen  eyes,  paleness  of  the 
comb  and  lameness.  At  autopsy  symptoms  of  hemor- 
rhagic septicaemia  are  found.  The  musculature  is  permeated 
with  bloody  effusions  and  red  spots  are  observed  in  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  intestines.  The  spleen  is  con- 
siderably enlarged  and  hemorrhagic  patches  were  observed 
in  other  parts  of  the  body. 

Etiology.  —  According  to  Dammann  and  Manegold  this 
disease  is  caused  by  a  capsule  bearing  streptococcus  {Strepto- 
coccus capsulatus  gallinarum).  The  organism  is  present  both 
in  the  blood  and  the  infected  organs.  The  disease  may  be 
readily  transmitted  by  inoculation  of  visulent  blood  to 
other  chickens.  The  incubation  period  varies  from  6  to 
14  days  and  the  course  of  the  disease  from  1  to  3  weeks.  It 
is  not  known  how  the  disease  is  naturally  transferred  from 
one  bird  to  another. 

Treatment.  —  No  treatment  is  known  except  the  main- 
tenance of  general  sanitary  conditions. 

Spirochcetosis 

This  disease  has  not  yet  been  reported  in  this  country. 
It  is  known  in  South  America,  Europe,  Africa  and  Australia. 
It  may  exist  in  this  country  undistinguished  from  fowl 
cholera. 

Diagnosis.  —  There  is  a  dullness,  loss  of  appetite  and  thirst. 
The  birds  stand  with  head  and  tail  down  and  eyes  closed 
as  in  Fig.  34. 

There  is  a  rise  of  temperature.  Diarrhea  is  present. 
There  is  a  pronounced  ansemia.     Post-mortem  examination 

1  Dammann,  G.,  and  Manegold,  0.,  Deut.  Tierarztl.  Wchnschr. 
Vol.  13,  pp.  577-579,  1905.  And  Archiv  Wiss.  u.  Prakt.  Tier- 
heilk.  Bd.  33,  41-70,  1907. 


Diseases  of  the  Circulatory  System  191 

shows  enlargement  of  liver  and  spleen.  The  crisis  of  the 
disease  occurs  on  the  fourth  or  fifth  day.  In  fatal  cases  the 
fever  disappears  and  the  temperature  sinks  to  below  normal 
shortly  before  death. 

FAiology.  —  This  disease  is  caused  by  a  spirochsete  {Spiro- 
choeta  gallinarum)  found  in  the  blood  and  in  the  liver  and 
spleen.     According   to    Balfour  ^    the    parasitic    organisms 


Fig.  34.  —  Bird  suffering  from  spirochsetosis.     (From  Kolle  and  Hetsch.) 

enter  the  blood  corpuscles.  Both  the  organisms  and  the 
corpuscles  then  degenerate.  According  to  Lounoy  and 
Bruhl  ^  the  number  of  erythrocytes  may  be  reduced  one- 
half  in  five  days.  A  favorable  turn  at  the  crisis  of  the  dis- 
ease is  due,  according  to  Levaditi  and  Manouclian,^  to  the 

^Balfour,  A.  S.,  "Spirochsetosis  of  Sudanese  Fowls  —  an  After 
Phase."     Jour.  Trop.  Med.  and  Hyg.,  Vol.  11,  p.  37,  1908. 

2  Lounov,  L.,  and  Bruhl,  M.  L.,  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur,  T.  28,  pp. 
517-539,  1914. 

^  Levaditi  and  Manouclian,  Ann.  Inst.  Pasteur.  T.  20,  pp. 
593-600,  1906. 


192 


Diseases  of  Poultry 


destruction  of  the  parasites  by  the  large  leucocytes  of  the 
spleen  and  liver.  The  organisms  are  carried  from  one  fowl 
to  another  by  the  tick  Argas  (see  p.  228).  According  to 
von  Prowazek  ^  the  tick  is  a  true  intermediary  host,  the 
organisms  appearing  in  the  salivary  glands  about  14  days 


X"^ 


^^^  f^i^ 

!^ 

■^<    A 

Fig.  35.  —  Fowl  spirochaetosis.      (From  KoUe  and  Ketch,  after  Burri.) 

after  infection.  The  organisms  may  live  in  the  body  of 
the  tick  for  seven  or  eight  months.  That  the  tick  is  not  a 
necessary  host  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  injection  of  the 


1  Von  Prowazek,  S.,  Mem.  Inst.  Oswaldo  Cruz.     T.  I,  pp.  79- 
80,  1911. 


Diseases  of  the  Circulatory  System  193 

blood  of  an  affected  fowl  can  produce  the  disease  in  a  healthy 
one. 

Treatment.  —  The  disease  has  been  successfully  treated 
with  atoxyl/  and  with  salvarsan  (606).^  The  best  treat- 
ment is  prevention  by  keeping  the  fowls  free  from  ticks. 

Prognosis.  —  About  one-third  of  the  affected  fowls  re- 
cover if  untreated. 

^  Levaditi  et  Mcintosh,  "L'influence  de  I'atoxyl  sur  la  spirillose 
provoqueeparle  Spirillum  gallinarum."  Com-ptes  Rendus  Soc.  Biol., 
T.  62,  1907. 

Uhlenliuth  u.  Gross,  "  Untersuchungen  uber  die  Wirkung  des 
Atoxyls  auf  die  Spirillose  der  Hiiliner."  Arh.  K.  Gsndhlsamt.,  15d, 
27,  pp.  231-255,  1907. 

2  Hauer,  A.,  Centbl.  Bakt.     Bd.  62,  pp.  477-496,  1912. 


CHAPTER   XIII 

Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System 
Apoplexy   {Hemorrhage  of  the  Brain) 

In  this  disease  the  bird  usually  drops  dead  or  paralyzed 
without  showing  any  previous  sign  of  illness.  The  only 
abnormality  found  on  examination  of  the  dead  bird  is  clotted 
blood  on  the  brain. 

Etiology.  —  The  cause  of  this  disease  is  the  rupture  of  a 
blood  vessel  in  the  brain  and  the  pressure  on  the  brain  due 
to  the  blood  which  escapes.  The  cause  of  this  rupture  may 
be  an  unhealthy  condition  (usually  a  fatty  degeneration)  of 
the  walls  of  the  brain  blood  vessels.  The  immediate  cause 
of  the  rupture  is  increased  blood  pressure  due  to  fright,  over- 
exertion, or  strain  in  laying  (hens  often  die  on  the  nest). 
This  disease  is  more  apt  to  attack  very  fat  birds  and  the 
degeneration  of  the  vessels  is  supposed  to  be  due  to  too  rich 
food  or  to  overfeeding. 

Treatment.  —  Treatment  of  the  affected  birds  is  useless. 
So-called  "apoplexy  cures,"  of  which  there  are  some  on  the 
market,  should  be  left  strictly  alone  by  the  poultr.\Tnan. 
Only  very  rarely  can  apoplexy  be  recognized  till  after  the 
bird  is  dead,  and  then  all  the  pills  or  potions  ever  invented  for 
the  purpose  of  swindling  a  gullible  public  will  be  of  no  avail. 
If  several  successive  deaths  from  apoplexy  occur,  modify  the 
ration,  giving  more  green  food  and  less  meat  and  corn. 
See  that  the  birds  have  plenty  of  range. 

Prognosis.  —  The  bird  is  usually  found  dead  or  dies  in  a 
little  while. 

194 


Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System  195 


Heat  Prostrations 

In  very  warm  weather  heat  prostrations  may  occur, 
especially  among  heavy  fowls.  This  is  sometimes  considered 
to  be  the  same  thing  as  apoplexy.  The  birds  suddenly  drop 
insensible  or  paralyzed. 

Etiology.  —  The  cause  is  pressure  on  the  brain,  due  to  heat, 
but  the  blood  vessels  are  not  ruptured  as  in  apoplexy. 

Treatment.  —  Mild  cases  may  be  treated  by  applying  cold 
water  to  the  head  and  keeping  the  bird  in  a  cool,  quiet  place. 

Prognosis.  —  Mild  cases  may  recover.  Others  usually 
result  fatally  in  a  short  time.  As  a  preventive  avoid  over- 
crowding in  hot  weather.  If  the  range  is  not  provided  with 
natural  shade,  supply  artificially  shaded  places  in  which  the 
birds  may  find  protection  from  the  hot  sun  during  the  middle 
of  the  day. 

Congestion  of  the  Brain  {Vertigo,  Cerebral  Hypercemia) 

A  number  of  abnormal  physiological  conditions  may  lead  to 
a  congestion  of  blood  in  the  brain.  This  is  usually  associated 
with  a  diseased  condition  of  other  organs,  and  hence  often 
occurs  as  a  complication  with  other  diseases.  It  is  some- 
times due  to  injury  of  the  head. 

Diagnosis.  —  Pearson  and  Warren  ^  give  the  following 
diagnosis  of  this  disease :  "  It  is  characterized  by  stagger- 
ing, stupor,  unusual  movements  such  as  walking  backward 
or  walking  in  a  circle,  unusual  and  irregular  movements  with 
the  wings  and  feet  and  twisting  the  head  backward  or  to  the 
side.  Sometimes  the  bird  will  fall  on  its  side  and  make 
peculiar  movements  with  its  feet  and  wings  as  though 
attempting  to  run  or  fly." 

1  Pearson  and  Warren,  "  Diseases  and  Enemies  of  Poultry."  1897. 


19G  Diseases  of  Poultry 

Etiology.  —  The  congestion  of  the  brain  is  sometimes  due  to 
blows  on  the  head  or  to  fright  or  other  intense  excitement. 
Often  it  is  associated  with  acute  indigestion  or  with  the  pres- 
ence of  parasitic  intestinal  worms. 

Treatment.  —  Apply  cold  water  to  the  head.  Administer 
a  laxative  (2  teaspoonfuls  of  castor  oil,  or  30  grains  of  Epsom 
salts  given  in  water  or  1|  grains  of  calomel).  Keep  the 
fowl  in  a  cool,  quiet  place.  If  this  treatment  is  not  efficient 
Salmon  recommends  1  to  5  grains  of  bromide  of  potassium 
dissolved  in  1  tablespoonful  of  water  3  times  a  day.  If 
intestinal  worms  are  found  in  the  droppings  after  the  laxative, 
treat  for  the  removal  of  these  parasites  (p.  139). 

Prognosis.  —  The  bird  may  recover  if  the  cause  is  removed. 


Epilepsy 

This  somewhat  rare  disease  is  characterized  by  occasional 
fits.     Between  these  the  birds  appear  normal. 

Diagnosis.  —  Pearson  ^  describes  the  behavior  of  the  bird 
during  the  fit  as  follows :  "  The  fowl  will  make  beating  move- 
ments with  its  wings,  its  legs  will  draw  up  and  it  will  fall 
down,  sometimes  turn  over  on  its  back,  or  it  may  stand 
upright  with  its  legs  apart,  head  turned  backward  and  mouth 
and  eyes  opening  and  closing  spasmodically." 

This  spasm  passes  away  after  a  time  and  leaves  the  bird  in 
a  normal  condition. 

Etiology.  —  It  is  often  impossible  to  discover  any  cause  of 
the  disease.  It  is  said  to  be  sometimes  caused  by  tumors 
on  the  brain  and  sometimes  by  intestinal  worms. 

Treatment.  —  The  only  cases  that  can  be  treated  are  those 
caused  by  the  presence  of  intestinal  worms.  An  affected 
bird  should  be  put  up  and  given  a  laxative  and  if  intestinal 

1  Loc.  cit. 


Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System  197 

worms  are  passed  treat  the  patient  for  the  removal  of  these 
parasites  (p.  139). 

The  birds  may  live  some  time  with  occasional  fits  and  may 
recover.  Cases  caused  by  intestinal  worms  are  definitely 
cured  by  removing  the  parasites. 

Polyneuritis,  or  Beri-beri 

A  nervous  disease  of  fowls  resembling  human  beri-beri  is 
known  in  India,  the  Philippine  Islands  and  Europe. 

Diagnosis.  —  The  chief  symptom  is  a  progressive  paralysis 
of  the  legs.  The  nerves  supplying  the  affected  parts  are 
greatly  changed,  often  showing  an  almost  complete  disappear- 
ance of  nerve  fibers. 

Etiology.  —  It  has  been  known  for  several  years  that  this 
disease  occurs  when  the  diet  of  chicks  or  fowls  is  completely 
or  nearly  completely  confined  to  rice  or  other  cereals  from 
which  the  outer  coat  has  been  removed.  If  the  whole  grain 
is  fed  the  disease  does  not  occur.  It  has  been  shown  that 
this  is  a  true  deficiency  disease  caused  by  a  diet  which  lacks 
some  substance  which  is  essential  for  the  normal  metabolism 
of  nervous  tissue.  The  addition  of  milk,  meat,  legumes,  rice 
polishings,  or  potatoes  to  a  deficient  diet  prevents  the  disease. 
During  the  last  two  years  Funk  ^  and  others  have  studied  the 
nature  of  the  substance  or  substances  which  must  be  added  to 
the  deficient  food.  They  have  isolated  from  rice  polishings 
a  crystalline  alkaloid  designated  as  Funk's  base  or  vitamine. 
According  to  Vedder  and  Williams  ^  this  "  probably  exists  in 
the  food  as  a  pyrimidin  base  combined  as  a  constituent  of 

^Funk,  C,  "Die  Vitamine."     Wiesbaden,  1914. 

^Vedder,  E.  B.,  and  Williams,  R.  R.,  "Concerning  the  Beri-beri 
Preventing  Substances  or  Vitamins  Contained  in  Rice  PoIisMngs. 
A  Sixth  Contribution  to  the  Etiology  of  Beri-beri."  Philippine 
Jour.  Sci.,  Sect.  B.,  Vol.  8,  pp.  175-195. 


198  Diseases  of  Puidtry 

nucleic  acid  but  that  it  is  not  present  in  the  nucleins  of  nucleic 
acids  that  have  been  isolated  by  processes  involving  the  use 
of  alkalies  or  heat." 

Treatment.  —  Prevention  is  the  best  treatment.  This  dis- 
ease can  be  easily  prevented  by  feeding  a  rational  diet.  The 
disease  may  be  cured  by  feeding  rice  polishings  or  an  extract 
made  from  them.  It  can  also  be  cured  by  a  dose  of  30  mg.  of 
Funk's  base.  This  is,  of  course,  not  available  for  therapeutic 
purposes. 

Prognosis.  —  If  the  cause  is  not  removed  the  birds  die. 
If  the  food  is  changed  so  that  it  has  a  sufficient  supply  of  the 
deficient  material  they  recover. 


CHAPTER   XIV 
Diseases  of  Kidneys,  Rheumatism  and  Limberneck 

In  routine  autopsy  work  where  all  dead  birds  are  examined 
probably  no  organ  except  the  liver  is  more  frequently  found 
in  a  diseased  condition  than  the  kidneys.  They  are  often 
enlarged.  Sometimes  they  contain  dark  points  caused  by 
the  rupture  of  small  blood  vessels,  and  in  other  cases  they  may 
contain  abscesses.  Micro-organisms  have  been  obtained 
from  some  cases  of  diseased  kidneys.  Nothing  is  yet  known 
of  the  causes  of  these  specific  diseased  conditions  in  poultry. 
Some  of  the  cases  of  under-development,  especially  of  pullets, 
are  apparently  due  to  enlarged  kidneys.  In  such  cases  the 
birds  usually  lose  their  appetite,  become  emaciated  and  their 
feathers  are  roughened.  No  dependable  diagnosis  of  dis- 
eased kidneys  can  be  made  on  the  living  fowl.  When  several 
cases  occur  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  flock  receives 
a  balanced  ration  with  plenty  of  green  food,  as  diseased  kid- 
neys may  occur  from  too  much  protein  in  the  food. 

One  of  the  diseased  conditions  of  the  kidneys  results  in  an 
inability  to  eliminate  the  urates.  The  uric  acid  content  of  the 
blood  is  greatly  increased  and  the  urates  are  deposited  on  the 
surface  of  the  visceral  organs,  in  the  tissues  of  the  urinary 
apparatus  and  around  the  joints  in  the  form  of  crystals  or 
urate  of  soda. 

Gout 

This  diseased  condition  is  called  gout.     In  fowls  as  in 
man  it  has  two  forms,  the  visceral  and  the  articular,  depend- 
ing upon  the  location  of  the  deposits  of  urates. 
199 


200  Diseases  of  Poultry 

Visceral  Gout 

In  visceral  gout  the  only  symptoms  shown  by  an  affected 
bird  are  a  loss  in  weight  or  "going  light"  and  a  slight  yellow- 
ish tinge  to  the  skin,  comb  and  wattles.  The  bird  has  a  good 
and  often  abnormal  appetite.  Death  occurs  suddenly.  An 
examination  of  the  abdominal  cavity  shows  that  all  the  organs 
and  serous  membranes  are  covered  with  a  chalky  or  talcum- 
like powder.  This  powder  has  a  mother-of-pearl  luster  and 
on  microscopic  examination  is  seen  to  be  composed  of  small 
needle-like  crystals.  These  are  crystals  of  urate  of  soda. 
These  crystals  are  also  found  in  the  urinary  organs.  The 
ureter  and  collecting  tubules  are  often  filled  with  a  mass  of 
these  crystals.  Hebrant  and  Antoine  give  the  following  test 
for  the  urate  of  soda. 

Dissolve  the  crystals  in  nitric  acid  and  evaporate  in  a 
watch  glass.  This  gives  a  red  onion  peel  mass  which  turns 
purplish  blue  on  the  addition  of  a  solution  of  caustic  potash. 

Articular  Gout 

In  this  form  of  the  disease  the  crystals  or  urate  of  soda  are 
in  nodules  around  the  joints,  especially  of  the  feet  and  toes. 
These  nodules  sometimes  appear  like  strings  of  beads  on  the 
under  side  of  the  toes.  They  contain  a  white  or  creamy  thick 
liquid  composed  mostly  of  the  crystals.  They  are  at  first 
soft  but  later  become  very  firm.  The  presence  of  the  nodules 
causes  stiffness  and  soreness  of  the  joints  and  the  birds  become 
indisposed  to  stand  or  walk.  Sometimes  the  nodules  ulcerate, 
discharging  a  stringy  pus  and  exposing  the  cavities  of  the 
joints  to  the  air.  The  development  of  fistulas  causes  the 
death  of  the  bones.  The  disease  is  slow  in  its  development 
and  advanced  stages  are  seen  only  in  old  birds.  The  birds 
lose  weight  and  in  advanced  stages  diarrhea  sets  in  and  death 
from  exhaustion  follows. 


Diseases  of  the  Kidneys,  Rheumatism  and  Limherneck     201 

Early  stages  of  this  disease  are  often  mistaken  for  rheuma- 
tism on  account  of  the  stiffness  and  soreness  of  the  joints. 

Etiology.  —  The  cause  of  this  disease  is  a  disturbance  of  the 
normal  physiology  of  excretion  so  that  the  uric  acid  which 
should  be  excreted  by  the  kidneys  is  first  retained  in  the 
blood  and  then  deposited  within  the  body  as  crystals  of 
urate  of  soda.  The  disturbance  is  probably  due  to  a  diet 
which  is  too  rich  in  proteids.  It  has  been  experimentally 
produced  by  feeding  meat.^  Beef  liver  produces  the  condi- 
tion more  quickly  than  horse  meat. 

Treatment.  —  In  case  of  articular  gout  Salmon  recommends 
rubbing  the  affected  joints  with  camphorated  or  carbolic  oint- 
ment. In  well  developed  cases  it  is  more  profitable  to  kill  the 
birds  than  to  treat  them.  Visceral  gout  is  not  usually  recog- 
nized while  the  bird  is  alive.  Prevention  is  the  only  reliable 
treatment  for  either  form  of  gout.  Birds  should  be  kept 
under  sanitary  conditions  and  given  plenty  of  green  food. 
When  several  birds  develop  the  disease  it  is  well  to  give  the 
whole  flock  Epsom  salts  (^  to  1  teaspoonful  per  bird)  and  to 
reduce  the  amount  of  meat  scrap  and  increase  the  quantity 
of  green  food. 

Prognosis.  —  The  disease,  especially  the  articular  form,  is 
chronic  and  advanced  cases  are  only  found  in  old  birds. 
Badly  diseased  birds  may  live  a  long  time.  Mild  cases  may 
recover  on  corrected  diet. 

Rheumatism 

A  lameness  or  stiffness  is  usually  considered  rheumatism. 
Many  such  cases  are  due  to  tuberculosis  of  the  joints  (p.  121), 
and  others  to  articular  gout,  but  there  are  muscular  and  joint 
inflammations  caused  by  exposure  which  are  properly  con- 

1  di  Gristiana,  G.,  Inlernat.  Beitr.  Path.  u.  Ther.  Ernahrungsstdr. 
Stoffw.,  Verdauungskrank.     Bd.  1,  pp.  29-47. 


202  Diseases  of  Poultry 

sidered  rheumatism.  This  disease  is  an  inflammation  of  the 
connective  tissues  of  the  muscles  and  joints. 

Etiology.  —  It  is  caused  by  exposure  to  cold  or  dampness. 
The  occurrence  of  several  cases  in  the  flock  indicates  some- 
thing wrong  in  the  housing  conditions. 

Treatment.  —  The  disease  is  prevented  by  keeping  the  fowls 
in  dry,  warm,  well  ventilated  houses  with  well  drained  runs. 

Prognosis.  —  Fowls  protected  from  further  exposure  and 
given  a  good  ration  with  plenty  of  green  food  usually  recover. 

Limberneck 

This  is  not  properly  a  disease  but  a  symptom  which  accom- 
panies several  diseased  conditions.  A  fowl  is  said  to  have 
limberneck  when  partial  or  entire  nervous  control  of  the  neck 
muscles  is  lost.  The  neck  may  hang  limp  so  that  the  head  falls 
on  the  ground  between  the  feet.  Sometimes  the  bird  is  able 
to  raise  the  head  from  the  ground  by  making  a  great  effort. 

A  bird  is  sometimes  said  to  have  limberneck  when  the 
dorsal  or  lateral  neck  muscles  are  tense,  the  head  drawn  con- 
vulsively backward,  but  this  is  more  often  called  "wry-neck." 

Both  limberneck  and  wry-neck  are  due  to  nervous  disorders 
which  arise  from  several  difterent  causes.  "Wry-neck"  is 
usually  associated  with  direct  brain  or  nerve  irritation  and 
occurs  in  epileptic  spasms,  but  also  sometimes  is  associated 
with  rheumatism.  Limberneck  is  usually  associated  with 
colic,  acute  indigestion,  intestinal  parasites,  or  ptomaine 
poisoning. 

No  treatment  for  limberneck  as  such  can  be  advised. 
Effort  should  be  made  to  ascertain  and  cure  the  diseased  con- 
dition which  is  responsible  for  this  symptom. 

Cases  due  to  rheumatism,  colic,  indigestion,  intestinal 
parasites,  and  some  of  those  due  to  poisoning  may  recover, 
if  the  real  cause  can  be  ascertained  and  treated  soon  enough. 


CHAPTER   XV 

External  Parasites 

Vigilant  and  continuous  attention  is  necessary  to  keep 
fowls  free  from  external  parasites.  At  least  32  species  of 
arachnids  and  insects  are  known  to  be  parasitic  on  fowls. 
Some  of  these  like  the  red  mites  visit  their  host  only  to  take 
food  and  spend  the  rest  of  the  time  on  the  under  side  of  the 
roosts,  in  cracks  and  crevices  and  various  other  places  of 
seclusion.  Others  like  the  lice  normally  stay  on  the  birds, 
although  occasionally  some  individuals  crawl  off,  especially 
into  the  nest."^  Some  of  these  parasites  live  upon  the  sur- 
face of  the  skin  and  upon  the  feathers,  deriving  their  nourish- 
ment either  by  sucking  the  blood  like  the  red  mite,  or  by 
chewing  the  skin  and  feathers  like  the  lice  and  some  of  the 
mites.  Some  of  the  mites,  however,  bore  under  the  skin, 
causing  skin  diseases  known  as  scabies  or  psoric  diseases. 
The  most  common  of  these  diseases  are  scabby  or  scaly  leg 
and  depluming  scabies. 

The  economic  importance  of  these  external  parasites  is 
very  great.  Fowls  infested  with  one  or  several  of  these 
species  of  parasites  are  not  profitable.  They  make  a  smaller 
growth  in  the  same  time  with  the  same  food  and  their  egg 
production  is  not  equal  to  similar  birds  not  so  infested. 
Not  only  are  they  constantly  robbed  of  some  of  their  tissue 
and  blood  but  their  rest  is  disturbed.  Sleep  is  as  important 
to  the  normal  physiology  of  a  bird  as  it  is  to  that  of  a  man. 

Keeying  a  Poultry  Plant  Free  from  External  Parasites.  — 
It  is  not  necessary  for  a  poultryman  to  be  able  to  dis- 
203 


204  Diseases  of  Poultry 

tinguish  the  32  species  of  parasites  or  to  know  their  life 
histories  in  order  to  keep  his  plant  free  from  them.  It  is 
only  necessary  to  know  that  some  of  them  stay  on  the  birds 
and  can  only  be  exterminated  by  treating  the  birds,  while 
others  spend  most  of  their  time  on  the  under  sides  of  the 
roosts  in  cracks  and  can  best  be  exterminated  by  contact 
sprays  containing  cresol  or  kerosene.  A  single  application 
is  not  efficient  in  either  case  but  treatment  must  be  repeated 
2  or  3  times  at  intervals  of  a  few  days  to  destroy  those  that 
hatch  after  the  treatment  or  are  concealed  beyond  its  reach. 
A  routine  procedure  by  which  a  poultry  plant  can  be  kept  free 
from  parasites  is  very  useful.  The  following  method  has 
proven  very  successful  at  the  Maine  Experiment  Station. 

All  hatching  and  rearing  of  chickens  is  done  in  incubators 
and  brooders.  The  growing  chickens  are  never  allowed  to 
come  into  any  contact  whatever  with  old  hens.  Therefore, 
when  the  pullets  are  ready  to  go  into  the  laying  houses  in 
the  fall  they  are  free  from  lice.  Sometime  in  the  later 
summer,  usually  in  August  or  early  in  September,  the  lay- 
ing houses  are  given  a  thorough  cleaning.  They  are  first 
scraped,  scoured  and  washed  out  with  water  thrown  on  the 
walls  and  floor  with  as  much  pressure  as  possible  from  a  hose. 
They  are  then  given  two  thorough  sprayings,  with  an  inter- 
val of  several  days  intervening,  with  a  solution  of  cresol 
such  as  is  described  in  Chapter  II.  Then  the  roosting  boards, 
nests,  floors  and  walls  to  a  height  of  about  5  feet  are  thor- 
oughly sprayed  with  the  lice  paint  (kerosene  oil  and  crude 
carbolic  acid  described  on  page  15). 

For  ridding  the  birds  of  lice  the  Maine  Station  formerly 
recommended  dusting  two  or  three  times  at  intervals  of 
several  days  to  a  week  with  the  lice  powder  described  on 
page  211.  All  birds  which  were  to  be  kept  over  for  the  next 
year's  work  were  treated  in  this  manner  before  they  were 
put  into  the  cleaned  houses, 


External  Parasites  205 

During  the  past  few  years  this  Station  has  adopted  another 
method  of  freeing  the  birds  of  lice,  namely  the  use  of  mer- 
curial ointment.  An  ointment  has  certain  very  distinct 
advantages  over  any  powder.  It  is  much  easier  to  apply, 
and  requires  less  of  the  poultryman's  time,  which  is  an  im- 
portant factor  on  a  large  plant.  Further  a  mercurial  oint- 
ment is  more  efficient  and  lasting  in  its  effect  as  a  parasiticide 
than  any  powder. 

The  form  of  ointment  which  we  have  used  is  the  ammoni- 
ated  mercurial  ointment  U.S. P.,  with  the  exception  that 
we  have  the  druggist  make  it  with  a  lard  base,  instead  of 
the  lanolin  base  called  for  by  the  Pharmacopoeia.  Others 
use  the  blue  ointment  of  the  U.S. P.  for  the  same  purpose. 
It  is  probably  mqre  effective,  part  for  part,  but  it  is  also 
more  expensive. 

The  proper  method  of  applying  the  ointment  is  to  rub 
well  on  to  the  skin  three  pieces  of  the  ointment,  each  as 
big  as  a  small  pea.  One  of  these  pieces  should  be  rubbed 
on  just  under  the  vent,  the  other  two  under  the  wings. 
The  ointment  should  never  be  simply  daubed  on  and  left 
as  a  lump.  If  it  is  so  done,  the  bird  is  very  liable  to  get 
some  of  it  in  the  mouth  and  a  case  of  mercurial  poisoning 
will  result. 

As  a  result  of  these  methods  the  Station's  poultry  plant 
is  at  all  times  of  the  year  practically  free  of  lice. 

This  method  keeps  the  flock  free  from  lice  and  the  mites 
which  live  upon  the  surface  of  the  skin,  but  would  not  de- 
stroy those  mites  which  penetrate  the  skin  and  cause  scabies. 
These  and  other  more  rare  parasites  should  be  destroyed 
when  present  by  special  methods.  The  description  of,  and 
treatment  for,  each  class  of  external  parasite  is  given  below. 


206 


Diseases  of  Poultry 


A.      LICE    (MALL0PIL\GA) 

Lice  are  probably  the  most  widely  distributed  parasite  of 
poultry.  They  are  so  common  that  flocks  of  fowls  that  have 
not  been  treated  to  remove  lice  for  a  long  time  are  almost 
sure  to  have  one  or  more  species  present.  At  least  8  species 
of  hen  lice  have  been  found  and  5  of  these  are  common. 
Bird  lice  are  quite  different  from 
those  which  affect  man  and  mammals. 
The  popular  notion  that  lice  may 
be  transmitted  from  poultry  to  other 
animals  is  quite  erroneous.  Theobald 
says:  "So  particular  are  bird-lice 
that  it  is  quite  the  exception  to  find 
one  species  upon  two  distinct  kinds 
of  birds.  Fowl-lice  will  not  even  at- 
tack the  duck  nor  duck-lice  the  fowl. 
Nearly  every  bird  has  its  own  partic- 
ular Mallophagan  parasite  or  para- 
sites. They  may  possibly  pass  to 
some  strange  host  for  a  short  time, 
but  they  will  not  live  and  breed. 
Moreover,  .  .  .  particular  species  at- 
tack restricted  areas  on  the  same 
host  and  are  seldom  found  in  other 
positions."  Some  of  these  lice  are 
sluggish,  nearly  stationary,  and  confined  to  a  restricted  area 
of  the  body,  while  others  are  active  and  crawl  over  the  en- 
tire body.  Theobald  describes  eight  species  of  lice  found 
on  poultry. 

The   most    common   and    widely   distributed    hen    louse 
found  in  this  country  is  Menopon  paUidum.     This  louse  is 
shown  in  Fig.  36. 
Another  species  of  this  genus  {Menopon  biseriatiim) ,  which 


Fig.  36.  —  The  common 
hen  louse  {Menopon  pal- 
lidum) .  G  reatly  enl  arged . 
(From  Banks.) 


External  Parasites 


207 


closely  resembles   M.   pallidum,   is  also   sometimes  found. 

These  are  active  lice  living  on  all  parts  of  the  body.     They 

often  crawl  on  to  the  hands  when  handling 

or  plucking  birds,  and  may  sometimes  be 

found  in  the  nests. 

There  are  several  other  lice  which  some- 
times infest  poultry.     Each  of  these  species 

is  confined  to  a  special  region  of  the  host. 

Although  capable  of  crawling  about,  the  lice 

of  these  species  for  the  most  part  remain 

nearly  stationary,  often  with   their    heads 

buried  in  the  skin  and  their  bodies  erect. 

Two  species,  Lipeurus  variabilis  and  Lipeu- 

rus  heterographus,  .live  among  the  barbs  of 

the  wing  and  tail  feathers.     Goniodes  dis- 

similis  is  found  under  the  wings  and  on  the 

rump.     The  appearance  of  two  of  the  species 
mentioned,  viz.,  Lipeu- 
rus variabilis  and  Goni- 
odes dissimilis,  is  shown  in  Figs.  37 
and  38  respectively. 

All  true  bird  lice  {Mallophaga)  have 
biting,  not  piercing  mouth  parts.  They 
live  upon  fragments  of  feathers,  scales 
of  the  skin  and  other  such  debris.  It 
is  evident  from  the  action  of  infested 
birds  that  these  parasites  cause  con- 
siderable pain  and  itching.  This  must 
be  particularly  true  when  they  are 
present  in  large  numbers. 

Life-history  of  Lice.  —  All  the  lice 
breed  fairly  rapidly.     The  eggs  or  nits 

are  laid  upon  the  down  feathers,  as  a  rule ;    they  are  often 

beautifully  sculptured  objects,  oval  in  form.     In  about  6 


Fig.  37.  —  Lipeu- 
rus variabilis. 
A  louse  that 
infests  poul- 
try. Much  en- 
larged. (From 
Banks,  after 
Denny.) 


Fig.  38.  —  Goniodes  dis- 
similis, a  louse  that 
infests  poultry.  Much 
enlarged.  (From 
Banks,   after  Denny.) 


208  Diseases  of  Poultry 

to  10  days  they  hatch  into  small,  pale,  active  lice,  which 
at  once  commence  to  irritate  the  birds.  The  adults  are 
occasionally  found  in  the  nests.  Some  species  are  found 
copulating  in  the  nests,  others  always  on  the  birds.  They 
live  a  considerable  time.  Menopon  pallidum  (Fig.  36) 
has  been  kept  alive  for  months  upon  fresh  feathers,  the 
quill  epidermis  being  especially  eaten.     Before  reaching  the 


Fig.  39.  —  Feathers  showing  eggs  or  "nits"   of  the  common  hen  louse. 
Enlarged.     (Original.) 

full-grown  state  as  many  as  10  or  12  molts  apparently  take 
place,  there  being  little  difference  in  each  stage,  except  the 
gradual  darkening  of  the  markings. 

The  eggs  or  nits  of  hen  lice  are  shown  in  Fig.  39. 

Methods  of  Introduction  and  Infestation.  —  It  is  generally 
agreed  that  lice  and  other  parasites  flourish  best  in  insanitary 
surroundings.  There  must,  however,  be  a  source  of  infesta- 
tion. Lice  are  brought  to  a  new  place  by  introducing  in- 
fested birds.  They  spread  from  bird  to  bird  (a)  directly 
during  copulation  (an  infested  cock  often  infests  the  whole 


External  Parasites  209 

flock),  or  (6)  when  two  hens  occupy  a  nest  together,  or  (c) 
from  mother  to  chick.  They  also  pass  indirectly  from  bird 
to  bird  by  crawling  oft'  one  bird  first  on  to  the  nesting  material 
and  later  on  to  another  bird  which  uses  the  same  nest.  Sharp 
has  also  observed  several  lice  clinging  to  the  body  of  a 
fly  parasitic  upon  chicke-ns.  Lice  are  so  much  more  common 
than  the  parasitic  fly  that  it  is  probable  that  this  insect 
is  of  little  real  importance  in  the  distribution  of  the  lice. 

All  the  lice  breed  very  rapidly.  In  8  weeks  the  third 
generation  is  mature  and  in  this  generation  the  estimated 
number  of  the  oft'spring  of  a  single  pair  is  125,000  individuals. 
It  seems  important  to  eradicate  an  infestation  if  possible 
as  soon  as  discovered.  However,  if  kept  under  sanitary 
conditions  and  furnished  with  plenty  of  attractive  dust, 
vigorous  birds  will  hold  external  parasites  in  check.  With 
some  attention  to  sick  birds,  setting  hens  and  young  chicks, 
the  parasites  will  give  little  trouble  on  a  plant  conducted 
with  due  regard  to  the  principles  of  hygiene  and  sanitation 
(of.  Chapter  II). 

Salmon  ("Diseases  of  Poultry")  says:  "It  should  be  re- 
membered at  all  times  that  the  external  animal  parasites 
are  the  most  common  and  frequent  cause  of  trouble  in 
the  poultry-yard  and  pigeon-cote.  If  the  birds  are  not 
thriving  and  conducting  themselves  satisfactorily,  look 
for  these  pests,  take  measures  to  repress  them,  and  in 
most  cases  the  results  will  be  surprising  and  gratifying. 
When  anything  is  the  matter  with  a  horse  the  maxim  is 
examine  his  feet,  and  when  anything  is  found  wrong  with 
poultry  or  other  domesticated  birds,  the  maxim  should  be 
look  for  lice." 

Diagnosis.  —  Adult  hens  may  harbor  quite  a  number  of 
these  parasites  without  showing  any  symptoms  which  indi- 
cate their  presence.  If  they  are  unthrifty  and  broody  hens 
leave  their  nests  they  should  be  examined  for  lice.     The 


210  Diseases  of  Poultry 

biting  and  digging  of  the  claws  of  the  hce  may  cause  sores 
and  the  nervous  irritation  and  loss  of  sleep  may  cause  general 
debility  and  bowel  trouble.  Little  chickens  are  very  sus- 
ceptible and  often  die.  Lice  are  frequently  found  in  large 
numbers  on  birds  suffering  from  roup,  gapes,  etc.  In  some 
cases  their  presence  has  rendered  the  birds  more  susceptible 
to  other  disease,  while  in  others  it  is  probable  that  the  birds 
lack  sufficient  energy  to  dust  themselves. 

The  sure  test  for  the  presence  of  lice  is,  of  course,  finding 
the  lice.  Part  the  feathers  under  the  wing,  on  the  back 
and  around  the  vent  and  examine  the  exposed  skin.  Exam- 
ine the  head  and  neck  feathers  and  look  between  the  large 
feathers  of  the  wing.  When  present  the  parasites  are  easily 
found  by  any  one  who  is  familiar  with  them.  It  seems  in- 
credible that  serious  infestations  can  escape  the  eye  of  any 
poultryman. 

Treatment.  —  Sanitary  surroundings  and  liberal  range 
help  the  birds  in  their  attempts  to  keep  themselves  free  from 
lice.  The  dust  bath  is  very  efficient  in  holding  the  pests 
in  check.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether  the  dust  boxes 
which  used  to  be  almost  universally  kept  in  the  poultry 
house  are  of  any  real  value.  It  is  a  noticeable  fact  that 
dust  boxes  are  much  less  used  now  than  formerly.  As  com- 
monly made  these  boxes  are  too  small,  and  too  shallow,  and 
are  not  filled  with  the  proper  kind  of  material.  Hens  will 
use  them,  in  most  cases,  only  as  a  last  resort  if  at  all. 

When  possible,  birds  should  be  given  access  to  dry,  sandy 
ground,  and  they  will  provide  their  own  dust  bath.  Some 
authors  advise  adding  insect  powder  to  the  earth  in  dust 
boxes  for  bad  infestations.  It  is  doubtful  whether  under  the 
best  of  circumstances  this  does  anything  but  waste  the 
insect  powder.  It  is  better  to  apply  the  powder  directly 
to  the  bird  and  furnish  clean  earth  for  the  dust  bath. 

When  hens  are  used  for  incubating  and  brooding  it  is 


External  Parasites  211 

necessary  to  give  some  individual  treatment  to  brooding 
hens  and  young  chicks.  It  is  also  necessary  to  treat  sick 
hens  which  are  not  able  to  use  the  dust  bath.  While  it  is 
theoretically  possible  to  exterminate  the  pests  and  keep  the 
flock  free  from  them  by  avoiding  the  introduction  of  infected 
birds,  this  ideal  condition  prevails  in  very  few  poultry  plants. 
In  almost  all  flocks  there  are  enough  lice  present  to  cause 
trouble  if  conditions  favor  their  development. 

How  to  Make  an  Effective  and  Very  Cheap  Lice  Poivder. — 
When  the  treatment  of  individual  birds  for  lice  becomes 
necessary  some  kind  of  powder  dusted  into  the  feathers 
thoroughly  has  been  one  of  the  most  effective  and  advisable 
remedies.  The  powder  used  must  be  of  such  nature,  however, 
that  it  will  be  effective.  There  are  so-called  "lice  powders" 
on  the  market  which  are  no  more  effective  than  an  equal 
quantity  of  any  inert  powdered  substance  would  be.  It  is 
not  only  a  waste  of  money  but  of  time  as  well  to  use  such 
powders.  At  the  Maine  Station  no  lice  powder  has  been 
found  that  is  so  satisfactory  as  that  originally  invented  by 
Mr.  R.  C.  La  wry,  formerly  of  the  poultry  department  of 
Cornell  University.  The  following  matter  regarding  this 
powder  (which  can  be  made  at  a  very  low  cost)  is  quoted 
from  a  circular  issued  by  the  Maine  Station : 

"In  using  any  kind  of  lice  powder  on  poultry,  whether 
the  one  described  in  this  circular  or  some  other,  it  should 
always  be  remembered  that  a  single  application  of  powder 
is  not  sufficient.  When  there  are  lice  present  on  a  bird 
there  are  always  unhatched  eggs  of  lice  ('nits')  present  too. 
The  proper  procedure  is  to  follow  up  a  first  application  of 
powder  with  a  second  at  an  interval  of  4  days  to  a  week.  If 
the  birds  are  badly  infested  at  the  beginning  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  make  still  a  third  application. 

"  The  lice  powder  which  the  Station  uses  is  made  at 
a  cost  of  only  a  few  cents  a  pound  in  the  following  way : 


212  Diseases  of  Poultry 

"  Take  3  parts  of  gasoline, 

1  yart  of  crude  carbolic  acid; 

"To  get  the  proper  results  only  the  90-95  per  cent  car- 
bolic acid  should  be  used  for  making  lice  powder.  Weaker  acids 
are  ineffective. 

"Owing  to  the  difficulty  in  getting  the  strong  crude  car- 
bolic acid  locally  in  this  State  at  reasonable  prices,  the  Sta- 
tion has  experimented  to  see  whether  some  other  more  readily 
obtainable  substance  could  not  be  substituted  for  it.  It  has 
been  found  that  cresol  gives  as  good  results  as  the  highest 
grade  crude  carbolic. 

"  The  directions  for  making  the  powder  are  now,  therefore, 
modified  as  follows : 

"Take  3  parts  of  gasoline,  and 

1  part  of  crude  carbolic  acid,  90-95  per  cent  strength, 
or,  if  the  90-95  per  cent  strength  crude  carbolic  acid  cannot  be 
obtained  take 

3  parts  of  gasoline  and 
1  part  of  cresol. 

"  Mix  these  together  and  add  gradually  with  stirring,  enough 
plaster  of  paris  to  take  up  all  the  moisture.  As  a  general 
rule  it  will  take  about  4  quarts  of  plaster  of  paris  to  1  quart 
of  the  liquid.  The  exact  amount,  however,  must  be  deter- 
mined by  the  condition  of  the  powder  in  each  case.  The 
liquid  and  dry  plaster  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  and 
stirred  so  that  the  liquid  will  be  uniformly  distributed  through 
the  mass  of  plaster.  When  enough  plaster  has  been  added 
the  resulting  mixture  should  be  a  dry,  pinkish  brown  pow- 
der having  a  fairly  strong  carbolic  odor  and  a  rather  less 
pronounced  gasoline  odor. 

"Do  not  use  more  plaster  in  mixing  than  is  necessary  to 
blot  up  the  liquid.  This  powder  is  to  be  worked  into  the 
feathers  of  the  birds  affected  with  vermin.  The  bulk  of  the 
application  should  be  in  the  fluff  around  the  vent  and  on 


External  Parasites  213 

the  ventral  side  of  the  body  and  in  the  fluff  under  the  wings. 
Its  efficiency,  which  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other  lice 
powder  known  to  the  writer,  can  be  very  easily  demonstrated 
by  any  one  to  his  own  satisfaction.  Take  a  bird  that  is 
covered  with  lice  and  apply  the  powder  in  the  manner  just 
described.  After  a  lapse  of  about  a  minute,  shake  the  bird, 
loosening  its  feathers  with  the  fingers  at  the  same  time,  over 
a  clean  piece  of  paper.  Dead  and  dying  lice  will  drop  on 
the  paper  in  great  numbers.  Any  one  who  will  try  this 
experiment  will  have  no  further  doubt  of  the  wonderful 
efficiency  and  value  of  this  powder." 

Next  to  the  Lawry  powder  probably  pure  pyrethrum  or 
Persian  insect  powder  is  as  cheap  and  effective  as  anything 
to  be  had. 

A  time-honored  and  effective  treatment  for  lice,  especially 
for  young  chicks,  is  greasing.  The  grease  most  often  used  is 
lard  or  sometimes  lard  and  sulphur.  The  latter  should  not 
be  used  for  young  chicks.  The  lard  is  applied  with  the 
finger  to  the  head,  neck,  under  the  wings  and  around  the 
vent.  Greasing  is  a  somewhat  tedious  but  very  effective 
treatment  for  lice,  especially  on  young  chicks,  since  lice 
usually  attack  them  on  the  head  and  neck. 

B.    MITES  —  ACARINA 

Eighteen  species  of  mites  are  parasitic  upon  fowls.  Only 
4  of  these  are  sufficiently  injurious  and  widely  distributed  to 
be  of  great  economic  importance.  Occasionally  one  or 
another  of  the  other  species  becomes  sufficiently  abundant 
to  be  of  local  importance.  The  mites  are  small  8-legged 
animals  related  to  the  spiders.  Some  of  the  mites  parasitic 
on  the  fowl  visit  their  host  only  to  feed,  as  the  common  red 
mite ;  others  remain  on  the  surface  of  the  skin  or  on  the 
feathers,  as  in  the  case  of  depluming  scabies.     Others  live 


214 


Diseases  of  PouHrij 


under  the  skin,  causing  deep-seated  skin  diseases  like  scaly 
leg;  still  others  find  their  way  into  the  internal  regions  of 
the  body,  living  either  on  mucous  membrances  like  the  air-sac 
mite  (p.  180)  or  upon  the  connective  tissue  like  the  connec- 
tive tissue  mite. 

The  most  common  and  most  injurious  mite  parasitic  on 
fowls  is  the  common  fowl  mite  or  red  mite,  Dermanyssus 
gallince.  These  mites  are  present  in  almost  every  poultry 
house  that  is  not  kept  very  clean.     When  they  are  present 


Fig.  40. —  The  connn. 
adult. 


"rcil  mite"  of  poultry,  Derrnaivjs 
d  and  e,  young.     (After  Osborn.) 


gaUincB. 


in  large  numbers  they  are  a  serious  pest.     This  mite  is  a 


larger  than  the  male.  When  empty  they  are  gray  with 
dark  spots,  but  usually  they  appear  some  shade  from  yellow 
to  dark  red  according  to  the  amount  of  fowl's  blood  they 
contain.  They  visit  the  fowls  only  to  feed  and  spend  the 
rest  of  the  time  on  the  under  sides  of  the  roosts,  in  cracks 
and  crevices,  under  collections  of  droppings  or  other  filth 
and  in  the  nesting  material,  especially  if  such  material  is 
dirty  straw.     The  mites  breed  in  these  places.     They  repro- 


External  Parasites  215 

duce  very  rapidly,  especially  in  spring  and  summer.  The 
eggs  are  laid  in  concealed  places,  usually  in  cracks  containing 
filth  or  in  dirty  nesting  material.  The  young  mites  are 
white  and  have  only  6  legs.  Their  first  food  is  probably 
filth  or  decayed  wood.  They  molt  several  times  and  their 
cast  skins  are  often  sefen  as  a  white  powder  on  the  .perches. 
After  the  first  molt  the  larvae  have  8  legs.  The  mites  are 
able  to  live  and  reproduce  for  months  at  least  without  ani- 
mal food,  but  when  they  are  associated  with  fowls  the  older 
larvae  and  adults  depend  upon  the  blood  of  the  fowls  for 
food.  They  usually  attack  the  birds  at  night  but  sometimes 
are  found  feeding  on  laying  or  brooding  hens  during  the 
day.  They  pierce  the  skin  with  their  needle-like  jaws  and 
suck  the  blood'.  The  irritation  due  to  the  biting  of  a  number 
of  these  creatures  disturbs  the  rest  of  the  bird  and  the  loss  of 
blood  may  be  considerable.  The  mites  thrive  best  in  dark, 
damp,  dirty  houses  and  may  be  found  in  such  houses  for 
months  after  all  fowls  have  been  removed.  They  will  bite 
man  or  other  mammals,  causing  severe  irritation,  but  do 
not  remain  on  strange  hosts  for  any  length  of  time.  Fowls 
should  not  be  allowed  to  roost  in  sheds  with  other  animals, 
as  the  sheds  may  become  infested  with  the  mites  which 
will  disturb  the  other  animals  as  well  as  the  fowls. 

Diagnosis.  —  If  the  birds  are  not  doing  well,  especially  if 
they  appear  emaciated  and  dejected,  they  should  be  exam- 
ined at  night  for  mites.  In  the  daytime  the  ends  and 
under  sides  of  the  roosts  and  the  cracks  in  them  should  be 
examined.  Numbers  of  the  mites  are  often  found  by  pry- 
ing up  a  loose  cleat  or  splitting  off  a  wide  loose  sliver.  They 
may  often  be  found  in  old  straw  nests. 

Treatment.  —  Clean,  dry,  well  ventilated  houses  which  get 
plenty  of  sunlight  are  seldom  badly  infested.  The  first 
step  in  eradicating  or  controlling  the  pest  is  thoroughly  to 
clean  the  houses.     Remove  the  droppings  and  all  the  old 


216  Diseases  of  Poultry 

nesting  material.  Clean  and  when  possible  scrub  or  wash 
with  a  stream  from  the  hose  all  the  perches,  nests,  floors  and 
walls.  Spray  or  paint  the  perches,  nests,  walls  and  floors  with 
a  5  per  cent  solution  of  cresol  (see  Chapter  II  for  directions 
for  making  this).  Professor  H.  C.  Pierce  has  tested  various 
remedies  for  mites  and  finds  none  so  effective  as  this.  Use 
plenty  of  solution  and  make  the  spraying  thorough.  Every 
crack  and  crevice  should  be  flooded. 

Another  spray  successfully  used  is :  3  parts  kerosene 
and  1  part  crude  carbolic  acid.  Still  a  third,  kerosene  emul- 
sion is  recommended  by  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture.  Their  method  of  making  this  spray  as  given 
in  Circular  No.  92  is  as  follows :  "  To  make  this,  shave  | 
pound  of  hard  soap  into  1  gallon  of  soft  water  and  boil  the 
mixture  until  the  soap  is  dissolved.  Then  remove  it  to  a 
safe  distance  from  the  fire  and  stir  into  it  at  once,  while  still 
hot,  2  gallons  of  kerosene  or  cOal  oil.  The  result  is  a  thick, 
creamy  emulsion.  Dilute  this  stock  mixture  with  10  parts 
of  soft  water,  and  apply  as  a  spray  or  with  a  brush,  being 
careful  to  work  it  into  all  cracks,  crevices,  and  joints  of  the 
building." 

With  any  of  these  sprays  it  is  necessary  to  make  two  or 
more  applications  at  intervals  of  a  few  days  to  destroy  the 
mites  which  hatch  after  the  first  application.  The  liquid 
may  be  put  on  with  a  hand  spray  pump  or  with  a  brush. 
Cleanliness,  fresh  air  and  sunlight  are  cheap  and  effective 
preventives. 

Scaly  Leg 

A  minute  mite,  Knemidocoptes  (Dermatorydes)  (Sarcoptes) 
mutans,  is  the  cause  of  a  contagious  disease  affecting  the 
legs  of  fowls,  turkeys,  pheasants,  partridges  and  cage  birds. 
According  to  some  authorities  it  sometimes  affects  the  comb 
and  beak  also.    The  mites  excavate  places  under  the  skin 


External  Parasites 


217 


Fig.  41.  —  A.     Normal  leg  of  hen.      B.     Leg  of  hen  affected  with  scaly 
leg.     (After  Megnin.) 


218  Diseases  of  Poultry 

where  they  live  and  breed.  The  most  thorough  study  yet 
made  of  this  parasite  and  its  effect  on  birds  is  that  of  Haiduk.^ 

Diagnosis.  —  This  very  common  disease  is  easily  recognized 
by  the  enlarged  roughened  appearance  it  gives  the  foot  and 
shank.  This  appearance  is  shown  in  Fig.  41,  with  a  normal 
leg  for  comparison. 

The  disease  is  present  in  most  flocks  unless  especial  care 
has  been  taken  to  exclude  it.  It  is  slightly  contagious,  but 
usually  only  a  few  birds  in  a  flock  appear  to  be  infected.  The 
scales  on  the  foot  and  leg  of  an  affected  bird  are  raised  by  a 
crusty  substance  deposited  beneath  them.  The  lesions 
usually  appear  first  near  the  joints  between  the  toes  and 
foot.  The  parts  affected  first  appear  to  be  enlarged  and 
then  the  scales  are  raised,  giving  the  roughened  appearance 
shown  in  B,  Fig.  41.  In  early  stages  the  disease  does  not 
appear  to  disturb  the  general  health  of  the  fowl.  As  it 
progresses  the  birds  become  lame  and  sometimes  the  foot 
becomes  so  badly  diseased  that  joints  or  even  whole  toes 
drop  off.  The  photograph  of  a  badly  affected  leg  is  shown  in 
Fig.  42.     The  two  legs  are  usually  affected  equally. 

Etiology.  —  The  disease  is  caused  by  the  minute  parasitic 
mite  Knemidocojjtes  mutans  (Figs.  43  and  44). 

The  mites  bore  under  the  scales  of  the  foot  and  leg  and 
burrow  deeper  and  deeper  into  the  tissue.  They  set  up  an 
irritation  which  leads  to  multiplication  of  cells  and  the 
exudation  of  serum.  This  accumulation  forms  crusty 
deposits  beneath  the  scales.  These  crusts  contain  many 
depressions  in  which  are  embedded  female  mites  containing 
eggs.  The  larvae  and  the  males  are  usually  found  beneath 
the  crusts.  The  relations  just  described  are  shown  in  Fig. 
45  which  is  a  picture  of  a  section  of  the  skin  of  a  "scaly" 
leg. 

1  Haiduk,  T.,  "Die  Fussrjiuder  des  Gefliigels."  Inaug.  Diss. 
Giessen,  1909,  pp.  1-58,  Taf.  I-VI. 


External  Parasites  219 


Fig.  42.  —  Photograph  of  the  leg  of  a  hen  very  severely  affected  with 
scaly  leg.     (After  Haiduk.) 


220 


Diseases  of  Poultry 


As  the  disease  progresses  tfie  mites  which  are  becoming 
constantly  more  numerous  penetrate  very  deep  into  the 


>.y\ 


y 


Fig.  43.  —  Photograph  of  the  adult  female  of  the  mite  Kjiemidocoptes 
(Dermatoryctes)  mutans.     (After  Haiduk.) 

tissues,  causing  lameness  and  sometimes  the  loss  of  some  of 
the  toes. 

The  infection  from  bird  to  bird  probably  takes  place  on 
the  roosts  or  from  mother  to  chick.     Robinson  believes  that 


External  Parasites  221 

the  birds  most  likely  to  be  infected  are  those  with  a  deficient 
supply  of  oil  in  the  skin.     The  conditions  which  favor  its 


_ 

■4  ■  V 


Fig.  44.  —  Photograph  of  the  six-legged  larva  of  Knemidocoptes  (Derma- 
ioryctes)  mutatis.     (After  Haiduk.) 

spread  in  a  flock  are  dry,  barren  runs,  especially  on  alkaline 
soils  or  in  yards  filled  with  ashes  or  cinders.  Foul  roosting 
places  also  favor  the  spread  of  the  disease.     The  disease  is 


222  Diseases  of  Poultry 

easily  cured  and  it  is  worth  the  trouble  of  any  poultryman 
to  cure  all  the  affected  birds  and  to  examine  any  birds  pur- 
chased that  infected  ones  may  be  treated  before  they  are 
introduced  into  the  flock. 

Treatment.  —  Individual  treatment  is  necessary  to  cure 
the  disease.  This  treatment  consists  in  the  application 
of  some  penetrating  oil  to  the  diseased  parts.  A  large 
number  of  oils  and  ointments  have  been  used  successfully. 
If  the  case  is  not  far  advanced  and  if  there  is  no  special 
hurry  about  bringing  about  the  cure  the  application  of  the 
oils  or  ointments  at  intervals  of  2  or  3  days  will  soon  do  the 
work.  If  the  birds  must  be  cured  quickly  for  show  or  sale 
purposes  the  cure  is  hastened  by  removing  the  scales  and 
crusts  before  applying  the  medicine.  This  may  be  done  by 
brushing  with  a  stiff  toothbrush  before  each  treatment. 
Or  the  feet  may  be  soaked  for  a  few  moments  in  warm  soapy 
water  and  then  brushed.  When  the  disease  is  far  advanced 
it  is  best  to  begin  the  treatment  by  the  removal  of  the  scales. 

Haiduk's  experiments  show  that  one  of  the  very  best 
cures  for  scaly  leg  is  oil  of  caraway.  This  is  best  apjjlied  in  an 
ointment  made  of  1  part  of  oil  of  caraioay  to  5  parts  of  white 
vaseline.  Oil  of  caraway  is  very  penetrating  and  is  not 
nearly  as  irritating  as  some  of  the  treatments  more  usually 
advised.  This  ointment  should  be  rubbed  into  the  leg  and 
foot  every  few  days  until  signs  of  the  disease  disappear. 

Hill  recommends  daily  application  of  an  ointment  made 
of  equal  parts  of  vaseline  and  zinc  ointment,  or  in  severe 
cases  of  one  made  of  1  ounce  of  sulphur,  §  ounce  of  oxide  of 
zinc,  1  dram  of  oil  of  tar  and  2  ounces  of  whale  oil  mixed 
together. 

There  are  two  common  remedies  used  successfully  by 
poultrymen.  These  are  irritating  and  should  be  used  with 
some  caution.  They  have  the  advantage  of  being  quickly 
applied.     The  best  of  these  is  probably  a  mixture  of  1  part 


External  Parasites 


223 


Fig.  45.  —  Section  of  the  skin  of  the  leg  of  a  fowl  affected  with  scaly  leg. 

a.  Papilla  with  pigment  cells. 

h.  Lymphatic  tissue  in  the  papilla. 

c.  Epidermis  :   stratum  profundum. 

d.  Epidermis :    stratum  corneum. 

e.  Section  through  a  mite. 

e.    Section  through  a  mite  showing  head  and  2  pairs  of  legs. 

/.    Young  mite. 

g.    Cavity  excavated  by  mites. 

h.    Excrement  of  mite. 

i.     Horny  layer  between  the  mite  excavations. 

(From  Haiduk,  after  Olt.) 


224  Diseases  of  Poultry 

of  coal  oil  or  kerosene  and  2  parts  of  raw  linseed  oil.  If  a 
quick  cure  is  imperative  a  half-and-half  mixture  may  be 
used.  Robinson  in  Farm  Poultry,  May,  1907,  recommends  a 
quick  and  easy  method  of  applying  this.  It  is  to  take  a 
tall  quart  measure  of  the  liquid  to  the  hen  house  at  night 
and  dip  both  legs  of  each  infected  bird  into  the  measure  of 
oil,  holding  them  there  for  a  moment  and  then  allowing 
them  to  drip  for  a  moment  more  and  then  replacing  the  hen 
on  the  roost.  With  any  treatment  which  involves  the  use 
of  kerosene  care  must  be  taken  not  to  Avet  the  feathers  of 
the  leg,  as  this  causes  irritation  and  sometimes  burns  the 
skin  much  as  the  human  skin  is  burned  when  it  is  rubbed 
with  kerosene  and  covered  w^ith  flannel. 

A  second  method  of  applying  kerosene  is  to  put  a  teaspoon- 
ful  of  the  oil  in  a  quart  measure  of  water  and  treat  the  birds 
by  the  method  given  above.  The  same  care  should  be  taken 
not  to  wet  the  feathers. 

The  advantage  of  these  treatments  is  their  easy  and  rapid 
application  to  a  number  of  birds. 

Depluming  Scabies 

The  mite  Sarcoptes  Icevis  var.  gallinw  (Fig.  46)  is  the  cause 
of  a  kind  of  scabies  in  fowls  which  causes  the  feathers  to 
break  off  at  the  surface  of  the  skin. 

Symptoms.  —  This  disease  usually  appears  in  spring  and 
summer  and  is  characterized  by  the  dropping  off  of  patches 
of  feathers  on  different  parts  of  the  body.  It  usually  begins 
at  the  rump  and  spreads  to  the  head  and  neck,  back,  thighs 
and  breast.  The  large  wing  and  tail  feathers  are  not  usually 
lost.  The  exposed  skin  is  normal  in  appearance.  Around 
the  stumps  of  the  lost  feathers  and  at  the  end  of  the  quills 
of  feathers  near  the  bare  spots  are  masses  of  epidermal 
scales.     On  microscopic  examination  these  scales  are  found 


External  Parasites 


225 


to  be  composed  of  numerous  mites  and  their  debris.  The 
irritation  of  the  mites  often  causes  the  birds  to  pull  their 
own  feathers.  Birds  affected  often  pull  each  others'  feathers. 
Some  of  the  so-called  feather  eating  is  due  to  the  presence 
of  this  parasite,  but  fowls  sometimes  pull  each  others' 
feathers  when  the  parasite  is  not  present.  Salmon  says  this 
disease  does  not  affect  the  general  health  of  the  bird  and  does 
not  appear  to 
disturb  gain  in 
flesh  or  egg  pro- 
duction,  but 
Theobald  says 
that  the  disease 
checks  egg  lay- 
ing in  hens  and 
affected  cocks 
become  emaci- 
ated and  some- 
times die. 

Etiology. — The 
mite  Sarcoptes 
loBvis  which 
causes  this  dis- 
ease is  smaller  than  the  one  which  causes  scaly  leg.  They 
live  at  the  base  of  the  feathers  in  the  epidermal  debris 
referred  to  above.  A  flock  becomes  infested  by  the  intro- 
duction of  one  or  more  birds  carrying  the  mites.  The  mites 
are  spread  from  bird  to  bird  by  the  male  in  copulation.  The 
distribution  is  often  very  rapid  so  that  the  whole  flock  is 
soon  affected. 

Treatment.  —  The  disease  should  be  prevented  by  taking 
care  not  to  introduce  infested  birds.  If  it  appears,  all  affected 
birds  should  at  once  be  isolated.  The  mites  yield  easily  to 
treatment.     The  infested  areas  may  be  rubbed  with  some 

Q 


—  Egg    containing    female    Sarcoptes    loevis 
var.    gallince.      (After   Theobald.) 


226  Diseases  of  Poultry 

of  the  less  irritating  ointments  recommended  for  scaly  legs 
(see  p.  222). 

The  following  list  gives  some  ointments  in  the  order  of 
their  desirability  for  use  on  the  body. 

Oil  of  caraway  ointment  (1  to  5). 

Balsam  of  Peru. 

Creolin  treatment  (1  to  10). 

Helmerich's  ointment. 
Salmon  gives  a  modification  of  the  latter  ointment  which 
he  considers  an  improvement  for  use  in  depluming  scabies. 

Flowers  of  sulphur,  1  dram, 

Carbonate  of  potash,  20  grains, 

Lard  or  vaseline,  |  ounce. 
Scabies  may  also  be  cured  by  liquid  applications.  The 
two  following  preparations  are  recommended  by  Salmon  :  A 
solution  of  balsam  of  Peru  in  alcohol  (1  part  of  balsam  to 
3  of  alcohol)  or  1  dram  of  creolin,  2  ounces  of  glycerine,  \ 
ounce  of  alcohol  and  \  ounce  of  water.  Either  of  these 
liquids  are  applied  by  rubbing  into  the  skin.  The  applica- 
tion should  be  repeated  every  4  or  5  days  until  the  disease  is 
cured. 

Other  Mites  Affecting  Poultry 

Another  form  of  Body  Mange  or  scabies  is  found  asso- 
ciated with  the  mites  Eiyidermoptes  bilobatus  and  Epider- 
moptes  bifurcatus,  but  it  has  not  been  certainly  demonstrated 
that  they  are  the  cause  of  the  disease.  Present  evidence 
indicates  that  they  are. 

The  disease  closely  resembles  favus  (p.  223),  but  usually 
does  not  affect  the  head.  The  regions  commonly  attacked 
are  the  neck,  breast,  the  wings  and  the  body  under  the  wings. 
It  sometimes  affects  the  entire  body,  including  the  head. 
The  skin  becomes  irritated  and  shows  an  accumulation  of 
scales  or  crusts  especially  at  the  base  of  the  feathers. 


External  Parasites 


227 


The  mites  live  on  the  skin  at  the  base  of  the  feathers. 

Since  the  mites  are  sometimes  found  on  birds  which  show 

no  signs  of  scabies  and  since  the  disease  so 

closely  resembles  favus,  which  is  known  to 

be  caused  by  a  fungus,  it  is   sometimes 

supposed  that  this  mange  is  also  due  to  a 

fungus  and  that  the  mites  are  inoffensive. 
Five  species  of  mites  have  been  recorded 

which   live   upon   the    feathers    of    fowls. 

These  are  fairly  abundant  but  do  no  harm. 
Two  mites  live  within  the  body  of  fowls. 

One  of  these,  the  air-sac  mite,  is  described 

elsewhere  (p.  180).     The  other,  the  connec- 
tive tissue  mite,  Symplectoptes  cysticola,  is 

found  in  the  connective  tissue  of  the  fowls. 

They  produce  local  irritations  giving  rise 

to  tubercles,  but  apparently  do  not  affect 

the  health  of  the  bird. 

The  larvse  of  the  so-called  "harvest-bug" 
(which  is  not  a  hugaX  all), 
Tetra7iychus{Throm- 
hidium)  (Leptus)  autumnalis,  sometimes 
attacks  poultry.  The  appearance  of  this 
mite  is  shown  in  Fig.  48. 

This  small  brick  red  mite,  barely  visi- 
ble to  the  naked  eye,  is  bred  upon  berry 
and  currant  bushes,  vegetables  and  grain, 
but  when  opportunity  offers  it  bites  al- 
most any  animal,  often  attacking  man. 
It  sometimes  causes  considerable  mor- 
tality among  late  hatched  chickens  which 

frequent  its  breeding  places.     The  parasites  fasten  themselves 

so  firmly  by  their  claws  and  palpi  that  they  can  only  be 

detached  by  force.     They  produce  intense  irritation,  which 


Fig.  47.  — .Symplec- 
toptes cysticola. 
Connective  tissue 
mite.  (After 
Theobald.) 


Fig.  48.  —  "Harvest 
bug,"  Tetranychus 
{Leptus)  autumnalis, 
larval  form.  (After 
Murray.) 


228 


Diseases  of  Poultry 


often  leads  to  epileptiform  symptoms  and  death  follows  in  a 
few  days. 

Theobald  suggests  dusting  flowers  of  sulphur  among  the 
feathers  when  the  parasites  are  present.  Probably  the 
Lawry  lice  powder  (p.  211)  would  be  more  effective.     When 


Fig.  49.  — The  poultry  tick,  Argas  persicus.     Adult  \c'ntral  view,  showing 
the  four  pairs  of  legs,  mouth  parts,  etc.     (After  Laurie.) 


these  parasites  are  abundant  chickens  should  be  kept  away 
from  the  places  where  the  mites  breed. 

Ticks.  —  A  poultry  tick,  Argas  persicus,  occurs  in  South 
Africa,  Australia,  and  many  other  parts  of  the  world.  It 
occurs  to  some  extent  in  the  southern  part  of  the  United 
States.     Where   present   it   is   an   exceedingly   destructive 


External  Parasites  229 

pest.  The  following  notes  are  taken  from  a  paper  by 
Laurie.^ 

These  parasites  belong  to  the  group  of  mites  Acari.  In 
the  adult  stage  they  have  four  pairs  of  legs  but  in  the  larval 
stages  only  three  pairs  (Figs.  49  and  50). 

These  ticks  are  nocturnal  in  habit.  During  the  day  they 
secrete  themselves  in  cracks  and  crevices  and  are  rarely 
seen.     At  night  they  come  out  on  to  the  roosts  and  fasten 


Fig.   50.  —  The  poultry  tick.    Larva,  showing  the  three  pairs  of  legs.    (After 
Laurie.) 

themselves  upon  the  birds.  After  gorging  themselves  with 
blood  they  return  to  the  cracks  to  digest  their  meal.  An 
adult  tick  feeds  only  about  once  a  month,  as  it  requires  that 
time  to  digest  fully  one  meal.  During  the  growing  periods 
they  undergo  a  molt  after  digesting  each  meal.  These 
ticks  breed  very  prolifically,  so  that  a  poultry  house  once 
infested  soon  becomes  overrun  by  them. 

1  Laurie,  D.  F.     The  Poultry  Tick.     Dept.  of  Agric.  of  South 
Australia,  Bui.  No.  74,  pp.  1-32,  1912. 


230  Diseases  of  Poultry 

A  considerable  portion  of  the  injury  done  by  these  para- 
sites is  due  to  the  irritating  annoyance  of  the  feeding  ticks. 
It  has  been  found,  however,  that  this  is  not  the  most  seri- 
ous injury.  In  those  countries  infested  with  these  ticks 
there  is  a  disease  known  as  the  tick  fever.  It  has  been  shown 
that  this  disease  is  caused  by  a  protozoon  blood  parasite, 
Spirochceta  marchouxi,  and  that  this  protozoon  lives  in  the 
poultry  tick  as  an  intermediate  host. 

Treatment. — Thorough  cleanliness  and  disinfection  are  the 
remedies  to  use  against  this  tick.  Five  to  ten  per  cent 
kerosene  emulsion  applied  to  the  clean  roosts  and  walls  will 
rid  the  place  of  these  pests. 

Otiier  External  Parasites 

The  dove  cot  hug  or  "bed-bug"  of  poultrymen,  found  in 
pigeon  lofts,  sometimes  invades  neighboring  hen  roosts. 
It  probably  sometimes  attacks  fowls.  It  resembles  closely 
the  bed  bug  found  in  dwelling  houses,  and  like  this  pest  is 
hard  to  exterminate  as  it  can  live  almost  indefinitely  on 
dead  organic  matter.  This  tick  hides  in  cracks  during  the 
day  and  attacks  its  host  only  at  night.  Persistent  repetition 
of  the  sprays  recommended  for  hen  roosts  infected  with  red 
mites  (p.  216)  will  destroy  these  parasites. 

Leaflet  No.  57  of  the  English  Board  of  Agriculture  gives 
the  following  brief  account  of  the  hen  flea,  Pulex  gallina;  (or 
aviuvi) : 

"The  fleas,  which  are  true  insects,  belong  to  the  order  of 
flies  {Diptera).  They  feed  upon  the  blood.  One  species 
only  lives  upon  the  fowl,  namely  the  bird  flea  {Pulex  gallince 
or  avium)  which  attacks  also  most  other  birds.  The  hen 
flea,  as  it  is  generally  called,  is  abundant  in  dirty  fowl  runs, 
and  especially  in  the  nests  where  straw  is  used.  The  adult 
flea  is  dark  in  color,  and,  as  in  all  fleas,  is  devoid  of  wings. 


External  Parasites 


231 


The  fleas  are  provided  with  very  sharp  piercing  mouths. 
They  are  what  are  termed  '  partial  parasites '  —  parasites 
that  only  go  to  their  hosts  to  feed.  The  fleas  are  not  noticed 
on  the  birds  because  they  generally  attack  them  at  night ; 
then,  however,  they  do  much  harm,  causing  constant  irri- 
tation and  loss  of  blood,  and  depriving  them  of  rest. 

"Life-history  of  Hen  Flea.  —  The  female  flea  lays  her  eggs 
(nits)  chiefly  in  the  nests  amongst  dust  and  dirt  and  in  the 
crevices  of  the  walls 
and  floor.  These  nits 
give  rise  to  pearly 
white  maggots,  with 
brown  horny  heads, 
which  can  often  be 
found  in  the  bottom 
of  the  nests  amongst 
the  dust.  These 
larvae  are  mature  in 
2  or  3  weeks,  then 
they  reach  about  e  of 
an  inch  in  length.  In 
warm  weather  they 
may   be    full    fed    in 

even  10  days.  They  then  spin  a  pale  cocoon  amongst  the 
dirt,  in  which  they  pupate.  The  pupa  is  at  first  pale 
brown,  then  dark  chestnut  brown.  In  this  condition  the 
flea  remains  10  to  21  days,  when  the  pupa  hatches  into  the 
adult.  They  breed  all  the  year  round,  but  chiefly  in  warm 
weather.  It  is  well  to  remember  that,  whenever  there  are 
dark  and  dirty  hen  roosts,  there  are  sure  to  be  a  number  of 
Pulex  gaUince." 

Treatment.  —  These  parasites  do  not  usually  occur  under 
sanitary  housing  conditions.  When  they  occur  the  houses 
should  be  cleaned  and  sprayed  as  for  red  mites  (p.  215). 


Fig.  51.  —  The  chicken  flea,  Pulex  gallinw 
or  avium.  The  mark  above  the  head  in- 
dicates the  actual  size.     (After  Kaupp.) 


232  Diseases  of  PoiiHry 

Theobald  recommends  the  use  of  excelsior  or  shavings  in- 
stead of  straw  for  nesting  material,  as  the  fleas  do  not  breed 
as  readily  in  this  material. 

Hanson's  Eye  Worm 

This  parasite  (Oxyspirura  mansoni)  was  first  reported 
from  America  in  1904.^  It  appears  to  occur  very  infre- 
quently in  this  country  at  the  present  time.  It  is  abundant 
in  some  of  the  tropical  and  subtropical  countries.  Wilcox 
and  McClelland  ^  state  that  it  is  very  common  in  Honolulu 
where  infested  birds  are  found  in  nearly  every  flock. 

According  to  these  writers  the  eggs  are  laid  in  the  eye  and 
are  washed  down  the  lacrymal  duct  and  thence  to  the  intes- 
tines. The  eggs  hatch  and  the  larvae  live  until  half  grown  on 
damp  soil.  At  this  time  they  enter  the  eye  of  the  chicken 
directly. 

Treatment,  —  Anesthetize  the  eye  with  5  per  cent  solu- 
tion of  cocaine.  Lift  the  nictitating  membrane  and  drop 
a  5  per  cent  solution  of  creolin  directly  into  the  inner  corner 
of  the  eye  under  the  membrane. 

Liming  the  soil  in  the  yards  or  keeping  the  birds  on  dry, 
frequently  disinfected  floors  until  the  infestation  disappears 
are  recommended. 

^Ransom,  B.  H.,  "Manson's  Eye  Worm  of  Chickens,"  etc. 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bur.  of  Anim.  Ind.,  Bui.  60,  pp.  72,  1904. 

2  Wilcox,  E.  v.,  and  McClelland,  C.  K.,  "The  Eye  Worm  of 
Chickens."     Hawaii  Exper.  Sta.  Press  Bui.  43,  p.  14. 


CHAPTER   XVI 

Diseases  of  the  Skin 

Favifs   (Baldness  or  White  Comb) 

This  disease  of  the  skin  attacks  poultry  as  well  as  man  and 
the  domestic  mammals.  In  mammals  it  is  called  tinea  favosa 
or  favus. 

Diagnosis.  —  The  disease  usually  appears  first  as  small 
gray  white  spots  on  the  comb, 

wattles,     eyelids    and    around  "       """^-v^ 

the  ears,  that  is,    on  the  un-  ,^   ^  ^  ^^iz 

feathered  parts  of  the  head. 
The  spots  enlarge  and  run  to- 
gether forming  a  scaly  crust 
which  becomes  thicker  until  in 
three  or  four  weeks  it  may  be 
as  much  as  8  millimeters  (^ 
inch)  thick.  The  scales  which 
make  up  the  crust  are  often 
formed  in  concentric  rings,  the 
margins  raised  and  the  centers 
depressed,  so  that  the  scale  is 
somewhat  cup  shaped.     When 

the  crust    is  removed    the    skin      y^,-,.   :,_>.  — Head  and  neck  of    a 

appears  irritated  and  in  places        fo^l  affected  with  generalized 

. ,  „  .  ,      ,  favus.     (After  Pearson.) 

the  surface  is  somewhat  raw. 

The  disease  spreads  to  the  feathered  parts  of  the  head,  the 

neck  and  the  region  around  the  vent.     The  base  of  the 

233 


234  Diseases  of  Poultry 

feathers  becomes  surrounded  by  concentric  rings  of  the  scaly 
material.  The  feathers  become  dry,  erect,  and  brittle  and 
finally  break  off  or  fall  out  leaving  a  disk-shaped  scale  with  a 
depression  at  the  bottom  where  the  base  of  the  feather  was 
located.  The  bird's  head  and  neck  and  patches  around 
the  vent  become  bare  of  feathers.  The  exposed  skin 
is  covered  with  the  cup-shaped  scales.  Sometimes  the 
disease  spreads  over  the  whole  body  until  the  bird  becomes 
nearly  naked.  The  diseased  bird  has  a  peculiar  disagree- 
able odor,  sometimes  likened  to  the  odor  of  a  musty 
grain  or  to  moldy  cheese  and  sometimes  to  cat's  urine  or  to 
macerating  animal  material.  In  early  stages  the  general 
health  does  not  appear  to  be  affected,  but  as  the  disease 
advances  the  bird  loses  its  appetite,  becomes  poor  and 
exhausted,  and  finally  dies. 

Etiology.  —  The  disease  is  caused  by  the  fungus  Achorion 
schonleinii. 

This  fungus  is  found  in  the  cup-like  scales  on  the  skin  and  in 
the  quills  of  the  feathers  of  the  diseased  parts.  If  the  favic 
cups  or  scales  are  moistened  with  weak  acetic  acid  and  exam- 
ined under  the  microscope,  it  will  be  seen  that  they  are 
formed  of  branching,  thread-like  mycelial  tubes  of  the  fungus 
closely  interwoven  with  one  another,  spores  of  the  fungus, 
and  epithelial  scales  from  the  skin  of  the  host  embedded  in  a 
viscid  substance  secreted  by  the  fungus.  Some  of  the  tubes 
of  the  mycelium  contain  spores.  Many  of  the  spores  are 
found  free  among  the  filaments.  They  are  usually  found  in 
groups  of  3,  4,  or  8. 

Both  the  mycelium  and  spores  of  the  fungus  are  found  in 
the  quills  of  the  feathers  of  the  diseased  parts.  The  fungus 
sometimes  penetrates  even  the  barbs  of  the  feathers. 

Favus  is  a  contagious  disease  and  gets  into  a  flock  by  the 
introduction  of  an  affected  bird.  It  is  less  likely  to  attack 
strong,   vigorous  birds  than  those  in  poor  condition.     It 


Diseases  of  the  Sldn 


235 


usually  starts  at  a  point  where  the  skin  is  broken.  Young 
birds  are  more  susceptible  than  old  ones.  The  large  Asiatic 
breeds  are  specially  liable  to  take  the  disease.  No  breed  is 
entirely  immune. 

Megnin  ^  and  some  other  authors  consider  this  disease 
distinct  from  the  favus  of  man  and  other  animals,  but  numer- 
ous recorded  observations 
indicate  that  it  is  the  same 
disease,  and  may  be  com- 
municated to  man.  In 
handling  affected  birds, 
therefore,  care  should  be 
exercised  to  prevent  infec- 
tion of  cuts  or  scratches. 

Treatment.  —  Diseased 
birds  should  not  be  intro- 
duced into  a  flock.  If  the 
disease  has  been  acciden- 
tally introduced  the  af- 
fected birds  should  be 
isolated  as  soon  as  possi- 
ble. The  flocks  should  be 
watched  in  order  to  dis- 
cover and  isolate  any  new 
cases  that  appear. 

In  early  stages  the  dis- 
ease yields  readily  to  treatment.  Ziirn  considers  treatment 
economically  advisable  only  before  the  feathered  parts  of 
the  body  are  attacked.  The  disease  may  sometimes  be 
cured  at  a  later  stage.  The  value  of  the  affected  bird  must 
determine  whether  or  not  it  is  worth  treating. 

As  much  of  the  crust  as  possible  should  be  removed.     This 


Fig.  53.  —  The  fungus  Achorion  schon- 
leinii  which  causes  favus  in  poultry. 
tv.  Empty  tubes  of  mycelium,  ip. 
Tubes  of  the  mycelium  containing 
protoplasm  and  spores. 


Megnin,  P.,  "Medecine  des  oiseaux."     Vincennes,  1906. 


236  Diseases  of  PouUry 

is  best  done  by  first  softening  the  scabs  with  warm  water  or 
with  oil  or  glycerine.  Robinson  recommends  scraping  with 
the  back  of  a  knife  or  a  spoon  handle.  The  parts  should  then 
be  painted  with  tincture  of  iodine  or  should  be  bathed  with 
corrosive  sublimate  solution,  1  part  of  the  sublimate  to  1000 
parts  of  water,  and  then  rubbing  with  the  ointment  described 
on  page  55.  In  using  the  corrosive  sublimate  solution  it  should 
be  borne  in  mind  that  this  solution,  which  unless  colored  with 
some  dye  looks  exactly  like  water,  is  extremely  poisonous 
to  men  and  animals  when  taken  internally.  Dishes  or  bottles 
of  corrosive  sublimate  should  never  be  left  where  they  can  be 
accidentally  mistaken  for  water. 

Lard  and  sulphur  are  often  used  successfully  in  the  treat- 
ment of  favus.  Use  nearly  as  much  sulphur  as  lard  and  work 
them  into  a  smooth  salve.  In  early  stages  the  disease 
usually  yields  to  application  of  lard  or  oil  alone. 

Prognosis.  —  In  early  stages  the  favus  may  be  cured  at  the 
expense  of  a  small  amount  of  attention.  After  the  feathered 
parts  become  affected  a  cure  requires  considerable  labor  as  the 
fungus  is  better  protected  from  the  applications. 

White  Comb 

This  name  is  often  used  for  favus,  but  some  authorities 
{e.g.,  Vale)  use  it  to  designate  a  condition  of  the  comb  charac- 
terized by  a  white  powdery  scurf  of  the  surface.  The  comb 
is  light  colored  and  the  white  scales  or  flakes  are  particles 
detached  from  the  epidermis.  This  condition  is  thought  to 
be  due  to  anaemia.  Wright  says  that  it  "  appears  generally 
due  to  dirt,  or  overcrowding  in  small  space,  or  want  of  green 
food."  The  only  treatment  advised  is  to  place  the  birds 
under  sanitary  conditions  and  give  them  a  good  balanced 
ration. 


Diseases  of  the  Skin  237 

Chicken  Pox  {Sore-head  or  Epithelioma  Contagiosum) 

This  contagious  disease  of  poultry,  although  widely  dis- 
tributed in  the  northern  states,  is  less  common  and  serious 
here  than  in  the  Gulf  states  and  Hawaiian  Islands.  It  is 
impossible  at  present  to  decide  whether  this  is  a  distinct 
disease  or  a  form  of  roup  which  affects  the  skin  of  the  head. 
This  can  only  be  determined  when  further  investigations 
have  revealed  the  real  cause  of  these  diseases.  Experiments 
have  shown  that  both  pox  and  diphtheria  are  easily  inoculated 
from  fowl  to  fowl  and  from  pigeon  to  fowl,  but  the  inocula- 
tion of  pox  from  fowl  to  pigeon  has  proved  very  difficult  and 
that  of  diphtheria  impossible.  The  contagion  is  believed  to 
exist  in  the  blood  as  well  as  in  the  nodules  which  appear  upon 
the  skin. 

The  disease  is  generally  introduced  by  new  birds  which  are 
put  into  the  flock  or  by  exhibition  birds  which  return  infected. 
Probably  it  is  often  brought  by  pigeons,  sparrows,  and  other 
birds  which  fly  from  one  yard  to  another.  The  inoculation 
of  the  comb  anfl  wattles  appears  to  occur  by  rubbing  these 
parts  with  the  infected  feet  or  by  being  injured  with  the 
infected  beaks  of  other  birds. 

The  virus  is  quite  resistant  and  requires  thorough  dis- 
infection for  its  eradication. 

Diagnosis.  —  The  disease  usually  appears  as  warty  nodules 
on  the  unfeathered  parts  of  the  head.  They  look  like  the 
tumors  in  the  nasal  passages  and  eye  sockets  of  birds  affected 
W'ith  roup. 

Freidberger  and  Frohner  ^  give  a  good  description  of  these 
nodules  on  the  skin  of  the  head,  as  follows : 

"Their  favorite  seats  are  those  parts  of  the  head  that  are 
not  covered  with  feathers  ;  root  of  the  beak,  neighborhood  of 

^Freidberger  and  Frohner,  "Veterinary  Pathology."  (Vol.  I. 
Hayes  transl.)     Quoted  from  Gary. 


238  Diseases  of  Poultry 

the  nostrils,  angles  of  the  mouth,  lobes  of  the  ear,  parts 
adjacent  to  the  auditory  meatus,  wattles,  surface  of  the  face, 
edges  of  the  eyelids,  intermaxillary  space,  and  especially  the 
comb.  They  sometimes  spread  over  the  feathered  parts  of 
the  head,  throat  and  neck,  and  may  occur  on  the  outer 
surface  of  the  thighs,  abdomen,  under  the  wings  and  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  cloaca.  At  first  these  epitheliomata  appear 
in  the  skin,  as  flat  nodules,  which  soon  become  prominent, 
and  which  vary  in  size  from  a  poppy  seed  to  a  millet  seed. 
Later  on,  they  usually  attain  the  size  of  a  hemp  seed.  They 
are  of  a  reddish-gray  or  yellowish-gray  color,  often  show 
distinctly  in  their  earlier  stages  of  development  a  peculiar 
greasy,  nacreous  luster ;  and  are  rather  firm  to  the  touch. 
Their  surface  soon  becomes  covered  with  a  dirty-gray, 
yellowish-brown  or  red-brown  crust.  They  are  discrete 
and  disseminated  in  considerable  numbers  on  the  erectile 
tissues,  etc.  They  vary  in  size  according  to  their  age  ;  and 
frequently  lie  rather  close  to  one  another,  so  that  the  affected 
parts  look  as  if  coarsely  granulated ;  or  they  are  crowded 
together  in  such  a  manner  as  to  give  the  appearance  of  large 
warts  with  divisions  through  them,  or  mulberry-like  hyper- 
trophies. Even  single  nodules,  to  say  nothing  of  the  groups, 
may  attain  the  size  of  a  lentil,  pea,  cherry-stone,  broad  bean 
or  larger  object.  The  older  they  become,  the  rougher  and 
more  covered  with  knobs  will  be  their  incrusted  surface. 
"If  the  edges  of  the  eye-lids  be  affected  by  these  tumors, 
the  lids  will  become  nodular,  swollen  and  closed.  The  con- 
junctiva in  this  case  also  suffers ;  it  projects  outwards  be- 
cause catarrhally  inflamed  ;  assumes  a  yellowish  color  at  the 
seat  of  eruption ;  and  its  surface  becomes  covered  with  crusts. 
Purulent  conjunctivitis  may  appear  and  the  inflammation 
may  spread  to  the  sclerotic  and  cornea,  with  keratitis  and 
panophthalmia  as  the  result.  If,  as  sometimes  happens  with 
pigeons,  the  eruption  of  nodules  extends  over  the  whole  of 


Diseases  of  the  Skin 


239 


the  skin  of  the  eye-Hds  and  its  neighborhood,  the  entire  eye 
will  become  covered  with  mulberry-like  proliferations  of 
various  sizes." 

The  presence  of  these  nodules  on  the  epithelium  of  the 
head  is  often  (but  apparently  not  always)  accompanied  with 


Fig.   54.     Sore-heud  on  comb,  eyelids  and 


(After  Hadley  and  Beach.) 


characteristic  roup  lesions  of  the  nasal  cavities,  mouth  and 
throat.  As  long  as  the  disease  is  confined  to  the  skin  of  the 
head  the  general  health  of  the  bird  does  not  seem  to  be  af- 
fected. Recovery  may  take  place  without  treatment  in 
from  10  to  20  days.  The  nodules  in  such  cases  dry  up  and 
fall  off.  Usually,  however,  the  disease  is  not  self-limited, 
but  advances.     The  eyes  may  become  closed  so  that  the 


240  Diseases  of  Poultry 

birds  cannot  see  to  eat.  They  get  poor  and  die  from  exhaus- 
tion. When  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth  develops 
diphtheritic  membranes,  death  occurs  earher  than  in  other 
forms. 

Etiology.  —  The  lesions  of  this  disease  resemble  the  lesions 
of  roup  and  many  of  the  same  micro-organisms  are  found  in 
the  two  cases.  The  organisms  isolated  from  the  lesions  of 
sore-head  include  several  bacteria,  a  coccidium,  a  yeast  and 
several  molds.  The  coccidium,  one  of  the  molds,  and  one 
of  the  bacteria  have  each  been  considered  the  cause  of  the 
disease  by  different  workers.  The  real  cause  of  the  disease 
and  its  relation  to  roup  must  be  determined  by  further 
investigations. 

Many  recent  investigations  have  indicated  that  the  disease 
is  caused  by  a  filterable  virus. ^  In  regard  to  the  etiology 
and  mode  of  transmission  Cary  ^  says  : 

"  It  is  evidently  infectious ;  because  the  disease  in  all  its 
forms,  spreads  rather  rapidly  from  one  chicken  or  pigeon  to 
another.  Ward,  Harrison  and  others  have  transmitted,  in 
some  cases  quite  readily  by  carrying  a  small  amount  of  dis- 
eased material  (exudate  and  blood),  from  a  sore-head  chicken 
to  healthy  chickens.  It  is  also  quite  certain  that  chicken  pox 
and  pigeon  pox  are  identical  or  one  and  the  same  disease. 

"Mosquitoes,  gnat  flies,  chicken  mites  (ticks),  chicken  lice, 
chicken  foot  mites  {Sarcoptes  midans)  and  possibly  cock- 
roaches may  sometimes  be  carriers  of  the  real  virus.  It  seems 
quite  certain  that  mosquitoes  can  transmit  the  virus  from 

1  For  example  see  : 

Bruet,  E.,  "Contribution  a  I'etude  I'epithelioma  contagieux  des 
oiseaux."     Ann.  I'lnst.  Past.,  T.  29,  pp.  742-765,  1906. 

Sweet,  C.  D.,  "A  Study  of  Epithelioma  Contagiosum  of  the 
Common  Fowl."  Univ.  of  Calif.  Public  Zool,  Vol.  II,  pp.  29-51, 
1913. 

2  Cary,  C.  A.,  "Chicken-pox  or  Sore-head  in  Poultry."  Alabama 
Agr.  Expt.  Stat.  Bui.  136,  pp.  17-56,  1906. 


Diseases  of  the  Skiti  241 

water  or  some  other  source,  under  certain  conditions. 
Warm  and  wet  weather  seem  to  increase  the  virulency  of  the 
virus  and  favor  the  rapid  transmission  of  the  disease.  It  is 
not  impossible  that  ants  may  have  a  role  to  play  in  the  trans- 
mission or  cause  of  sore-head. 

"  Pathological  Anatomy.  —  On  the  skin  the  small,  greasy- 
like  nodules,  or  hypertrophied  nodules  of  the  skin,  contain 
epithelial  cells  that  have  in  them  'greasy'  refractive  bodies 
that  stain  yellow  with  picro-carmine  and  the  nuclei  of  the 
epithelial  cells  become  '  reddish  brown '  in  color.  Nearly  all 
the 'epithelial  cells  in  the  nodule  appear  larger  than  normal 
and  contain  the  refractive  bodies.  In  the  younger  epithelial 
cells  these  bodies  (young  coccidia)  are  relatively  small  and 
occupy  J  to  ^  of  the  epithelial  cavity.  In  the  older  or 
outer  or  cast-ofF  epithelial  cells  these  refractive  bodies  are 
said  by  Freidberger  and  Frohner  to  occupy  the  entire  cavities 
of  the  epithelial  cells.  The  invaded  or  infested  epithelial 
cells  are  unusually  larger  than  the  epidermal  cells  of  the 
healthy  neighboring  skin.  Among  the  cast-off  mass  of 
epithelial  cells  are  found  round  refractive  bodies  and  numer- 
ous nuclei  of  leucocytes  or  pus  cells.  The  subcutaneous  con- 
nective tissue  is  hypersemic  (congested)  and  is  infiltrated  with 
cells  (leucocytes  and  nuclei  of  disintegrated  cells).  Possibly 
some  of  the  small  nuclei-like  bodies  among  the  cells  in  the  sub- 
cutis  may  represent  one  stage  in  the  development  of  coccidia. 
Many  observers  have,  also,  found  various  bacteria  in  the 
nodule  and  subcutis. 

"When  the  exudate  on  the  mucous  surface  or  the  crust  of 
the  nodule  of  the  skin  is  torn  off  the  raw  surface  bleeds  rather 
freely  and  a  fresh  mount  of  this  blood  contains  a  short  oval 
bacillus,  numerous  round  bodies  usually  said  to  be  nuclei  of 
leucocytes ;  and  a  few  polynuclear  leucocytes.  Repeated 
inoculations  in  the  comb,  wattles,  skin  and  conjunctiva  and 
oral  mucosa  of  healthy  chickens  of  various  ages,  with  this 


242  Diseases  of  Poultry 

blood,  fresh  from  under  a  nodule  or  a  diphtheritic  exudate, 
has  failed  to  produce  positive  infective  results.  I  have  also 
tested  it  on  pigeons  with  like  negative  results. 

"The  exudates  on  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  throat, 
mouth  or  larynx  appear  to  be  very  much  alike  in  all  forms  of 
the  disease." 

The  period  of  incubation  is  said  to  vary  all  the  way  from 
2  to  20  days.  Cary  reports  a  case  in  which  a  newly  pur- 
chased Barred  Plymouth  Rock  cockerel  was  placed  in  the 
pen  with  chickens  just  recovering  from  the  disease.  In  24 
hours  this  bird  had  developed  a  well  marked  case  of  sore- 
head on  the  wattles,  comb,  and  eyelids.  Apparently  the 
period  of  incubation  varies  with  the  mode  of  transmission, 
virulenc}^  of  the  virus,  the  weather  (rapid  in  damp,  warm 
weather  and  slower  in  cool  and  dry  weather) ,  and  the  age  and 
condition  of  the  chicken  or  pigeon.  Chicks  from  broiling 
size  up  to  7  or  8  months  old  seem  to  be  most  susceptible. 
Chickens  with  large  combs  seem  to  be  more  susceptible  than 
birds  with  small  combs  and  wattles. 

Treatment.  —  The  introduction  of  diseased  birds  into 
healthy  flocks  should  be  avoided.  The  same  precautions 
should  be  practiced  in  the  isolation  of  sick  birds  and  dis- 
infecting the  houses  as  is  advised  for  roup  (p.  161).  When 
the  disease  is  localized  a  small  amount  of  individual  treat- 
ment cures  many  cases.  The  crust  or  nodules  should  be 
removed  and  the  places  treated  with  creolin  (2  per  cent 
solution)  or  corrosive  sublimate  (toVo)  (P-  54)  and  dusted 
with  iodoform.  The  iodoform  may  be  put  into  the  eye. 
When  the  disease  is  not  far  advanced  one  such  treatment 
may  be  followed  by  daily  greasing  with  the  ointment  rec- 
ommended on  p.  55  or  with  vaseline  or  lard.  In  bad  cases 
the  iodoform  should  be  used  daily  for  a  few  days  and  then  the 
ointment. 

Recently  some  work  has  been  done  on  the  production  of 


Diseases  of  the  Skin  243 

artificial  immunity  to  this  disease.  Manteufel  ^  used  a  virus 
obtained  by  scraping  oflF  the  softened  epitheliomse  and 
macerating  these  in  physiological  salt  solution.  Chickens 
injected  intravenously  or  subcutaneously  with  this  virus 
showed  an  immunity  which  lasted  from  one  and  a  half  to  two 
years.  He  also  tried -a  hyperimmune  serum  but  without 
success.  Hadley  and  Beach  ^  report  good  success  with  a 
vaccine  prepared  in  the  same  way.  Their  vaccine  was  pre- 
pared by  grinding  pock  scabs,  diphtheritic  membranes,  etc., 
in  a  sterile  mortar  with  physiological  salt  solution.  This 
was  then  filtered  through  cotton  and  heated  for  one  hour  at 
55°  C.  In  an  infected  flock  440  healthy  birds  were  vaccinated 
with  two  doses  of  1  cc,  each  at  an  interval  of  five  days. 
Only  four  birds,  or  less  than  1  per  cent,  in  this  lot  developed 
noticeable  symptoms.  Of  75  control  birds,  26  cases  developed 
in  three  weeks. 

Hadley  and  Beach  recommend  this  vaccine  treatment  as 
"especially  applicable  in  large  commercial  and  experimental 
flocks,  where  the  greatest  losses  are  sustained  and  where 
preventative  measures  can  be  most  economically  carried 
out.  Breeders  of  pure  bred  and  fancy  fowls  whose  stock 
would  be  impossible  to  replace  should  also  find  it  valuable." 

Prognosis.  —  The  mortality  among  birds  affected  with  this 
disease  is  said  to  be  from  50  to  70  per  cent.  Gary  (loc.  cit) 
says :  "  I  judge  this  a  low  per  cent  of  losses  if  birds  are  left 
to  themselves  without  proper  care  or  treatment.  But  if 
individual  treatment  is  patiently  and  regularly  applied  the 
mortality  can  be  cut  down  to  less  than  20  per  cent.  If  only 
the  skin  of  the  head,  and  the  comb  and  wattles  are  involved, 


1  Manteufel,  Arb.  Kaiserl.  Gesundheilsamt.  Bd.  33,  pp.  305-312, 
1910. 

2  Hadley,  F.  B.,  and  Beach,  B.  A.,  "Controlling  Chiekenpox, 
Sorehead  or  Contagious  Epithelioma  by  Vaccination."  Proc. 
Amer.  Vet.  Med.  Assoc,  Vol.  50,  pp.  704-712,  1913. 


244  Diseases  of  Poultry 

one  should  lose  less  than  10  per  cent.  .  .  .  But  if  the  nasal 
passages  and  trachea  are  involved,  or  the  intestines  become 
involved,  —  good  care  and  treatment  may  save  50  to  80  per 
cent." 

Edema  of  the   Wattles 

Seddon  ^  has  recently  described  a  disease  of  the  wattles 
of  fowls  showing  two  very  marked  symptoms,  namely 
(1)  enlargement  due  to  the  presence  of  the  inflammatory 
fluid  and  later  (2)  distortion  with  the  formation  of  hard 
nodules  of  cheesy  material  in  the  wattle.  He  believes  the 
disease  is  a  localized  form  of  fowl  cholera,  in  which  the  causa- 
tive organism  gains  entrance  to  the  wattles  through  scratches, 
etc.  Septicaemia  and  death  occur  in  a  certain  percentage  of 
the  cases.  The  disease  usually  runs  a  chronic  course  with 
subsequent  replacing  of  the  edematous  fluid  by  fibrous 
tissue  and  results  in  the  wattle  assuming  a  crinkled  appear- 
ance. 

Treatment.  —  "Cropping"  of  the  wattles  is  recommended 
in  some  cases.  The  adoption  of  general  sanitary  measures 
is  of  most  service'in  suppressing  the  disease.  (See  Chapter 
11.) 

'Seddon,  H.  R.,  "A  Disease  of  the  Wattles  of  Fowls."  Jour. 
Dept.  Agr.  Victoria,  Vol.  12,  pp.  426^28,  1914. 

,  "Edema  of  the  Wattles  of  Fowls  Due  to  an  Organism  of  the 

PasteureUa  Group."     Vet.  Jour.,  Vol.  70,  pp.  24-34,  1914. 


CHAPTER   XVII 

Diseases  of  the  Reproductive  Organs 

The  direct  economic  importance  of  poultry  lies  in  the 
production  of  two  things,  viz.,  meat  and  eggs.  For  the 
production  of  the  latter  the  poultryman  is  dependent  upon 
the  activity  of  the  reproductive  system  of  the  hen.  Under 
natural  conditions  in  the  wild  state,  the  progenitors  of  the 
domestic  fowl  laid  relatively  few  eggs.  Judging  by  other 
species  of  wild  birds  of  the  present  day,  however,  it  is  highly 
probable  that  the  wild  progenitors  of  poultry  possessed  the 
potential  ability  to  lay  much  more  than  the  usual  number 
of  eggs  provided  they  were  removed  from  the  nest  as  fast  as 
laid.  Under  domestication  this  practice  of  removing  the 
eggs  as  fast  as  laid,  together  with  the  feeding  of  rich  foods, 
and  still  other  factors,  lays  heavy  demands  upon  the  repro- 
ductive system.  It  is  not  remarkable  that  an  organ  system 
which  under  conditions  of  nature  produced  from  12  to 
perhaps  30  units  per  annum,  frequently  breaks  down  under 
the  strain  of  producing  from  100  to  250  per  annum  of  the 
same  kind  of  units.  It  could  only  be  expected  that,  as  is 
actually  the  case,  the  egg  producing  organs  would  be  partic- 
ularly liable  to  disease. 

ANATOMY   AND    PHYSIOLOGY 

In  order  that  the  discussion  of  the  diseases  of  the  reproduc- 
tive organs  may  be  intelligible  it  is  desirable  to  preface  it 
with  a  brief  account  of  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the 
245 


246  Diseases  of  Poultry 

organs  of  reproduction  in  the  hen.  Because  of  the  fact 
that  the  corresponding  organs  in  the  male  are  less  subject 
to  disease,  on  the  one  hand,  and  are  perhaps  better  under- 
stood by  the  poultryman,  because  of  the  prevalence  of  the 
practice  of  caponizing,  on  the  other  hand,  it  will  not  be 
necessary  to  discuss  the  male  in  detail  in  this  connection. 

The  organs  concerned  in  egg  production  in  the  hen  are 
shown  graphically  in  Fig.  55.  This  picture  and  the  accom- 
panying explanation  of  it  will  make  clear  the  various  parts 
of  this  organ  system.  All  of  the  points  shown  in  the  figure 
may  easily  be  demonstrated  on  a  hen,  killed  during  a  period 
of  laying  activity.  It  should  be  noted  that  this  picture  is 
somewhat  diagrammatic  and  not  in  accord  with  normal 
conditions  in  respect  to  at  least  two  points.  These  are  :  (1) 
there  are  two  eggs  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  oviduct. 
Normally  there  would  be  but  one  there  at  a  time.  (2)  The 
proportionate  lengths  of  albumen  portion,  isthmus  and 
uterus  are  not  correctly  indicated. 

In  this  figure  the  various  numerals  have  the  following  sig- 
nificance : 

1.  The  ovary;  region  in  which  the  ovules  (later  to  be- 
come yolks)  are  still  small  in  size. 

2.  An  ovule  in  an  intermediate  stage  of  development, 
larger  than  those  at  1 ,  but  still  not  ready  to  pass  into  the  ovi- 
duct to  be  laid.  It  is  contained  in  a  very  vascular  capsule, 
known  technically  as  the  follicle. 

3.  3.  Ovules  still  larger  and  containing  more  yolk.  The 
lower  one  is  nearly  ready  to  leave  the  ovary  and  pass  down 
the  oviduct. 

4.  It  will  be  noted  that  on  all  the  larger  follicles  there  is 
one  region  (forming  a  line)  in  which  there  are  no  blood  vessels. 
This  region  (4,  4)  is  known  as  the  stigma.  Here  the  follicle 
wall  breaks  and  allows  the  ovule  (yolk)  to  leave  the  ovary 
preparatory  to  laying. 


Fig.  55.  —  The  reproductive  or  egg  producing  organs  of  a  hen.     See  text 
for  explanation  of  figures.     (After  Duval.) 


248  Diseases  of  Poultry 

5.  An  empty  follicle  in  which  the  stigma  has  opened  and 
the  yolk  passed  out. 

6.  Anterior  end  of  the  margin  of  the  funnel  (or  infundibu- 
lum)  of  the  oviduct  or  egg-tube.  When  an  ovule  is  about  to 
be  discharged  from  the  ovary  these  funnel  lips  or  margins 
wrap  around  that  portion  of  the  ovary,  so  that  the  ovule 
may  certainly  pass  into  the  oviduct  and  not  into  the  ab- 
dominal cavity. 

7.  Opening  of  the  funnel.  Through  this  opening  the 
yolk  passes  into  the  oviduct. 

8.  A  yolk  which  has  just  passed  through  the  funnel 
opening  into  the  upper  portion  of  the  oviduct. 

9.  9.  Albumen  secreting  portion  of  the  oviduct  in  which 
the  greater  portion  of  the  albumen  or  white  of  the  egg  is 
secreted  by  glands  in  the  walls  of  the  oviduct  in  this  region. 

10.  First  layer  of  albumen,  or  white,  secreted  about  the 
yolk.  From  this  layer  are  formed  the  chalazce,  or  cords  of 
twisted,  thickened  albumen,  at  each  pole  of  the  yolk. 

11.  Yolk,  around  which  albumen  is  being  secreted. 

12.  The  germinal  disk.  This  is  the  living  portion  of  the 
egg,  from  which  the  future  chick  develops,  the  main  mass  of 
yolk  serving  as  food  material  for  the  developing  embryo 
during  the  process. 

13.  Anterior  end  of  the  isthmus  of  the  oviduct.  The 
primary  function  of  the  isthmus  is  to  secrete  about  the  egg 
the  shell  membrane,  the  dense  white  membrane  closely  ad- 
herent to  the  inside  of  the  shell  of  an  egg. 

14.  The  uterus,  or  shell  gland,  in  which  the  shell  is  put  on 
the  egg. 

15.  The  rectum. 

16.  The  walls  of  the  abdomen  cut  and  folded  back. 

17.  External  opening  of  the  cloaca,  or  common  space  into 
which  open  (a)  the  rectum,  (6)  the  oviduct  and  (e)  the 
ureters,  or  kidney  ducts. 


Diseases  of  the  Reproductive  Organs  249 

The  processes  concerned  in  the  formation  of  an  egg  may 
be  summarized  as  follows : 

Certain  ones  of  the  small  oocytes  in  the  ovary  (Fig.  55, 
1)  are  all  the  time  coming  into  a  state  of  physiological  ac- 
tivity, while  the  hen  is  in  a  laying  cycle.  These  oocytes 
grow  in  size  by  the  deposition  of  yolk  until  finally  they  are 
of  the  full  size  for  laying.  The  time  required  for  this  final 
growth  of  yolks  preparatory  to  laying  is  not  far  from  20 
days,  on  the  average.^ 

The  fully  formed  yolk,  or  ovum,  leaves  the  follicle  through 
a  rupture  of  the  latter  along  the  stigma  (Fig.  55).  This 
process  is  called  ovulation.  As  it  leaves  the  ovary  the  ovum 
is  received  by  the  funnel  of  the  oviduct. 

After  entering  the  infundibulum  the  yolk  remains  in  the 
so-called  albumen  portion  of  the  oviduct  about  three  hours 
and  in  this  time  acquires  only  about  40  to  50  per  cent  by 
weight  of  its  total  albumen  and  not  all  of  it  as  has  hitherto 
been  supposed.  During  its  sojourn  in  the  albumen  portion 
of  the  duct  the  egg  acquires  its  chalazse  and  chalaziferous 
layer,  the  dense  albumen  layer,  and  (if  such  a  layer  exists 
as  a  distinct  entity,  about  which  there  is  some  doubt)  the 
inner  fluid  layer  of  albumen. 

Upon  entering  the  isthmus,  in  passing  through  which 
portion  of  the  duct  something  under  an  hour's  time  is 
occupied  instead  of  three  hours  as  has  been  usually  main- 
tained, the  egg  receives  its  shell  membranes  by  a  process 
of  discrete  deposition.  At  the  same  time,  and  during  the 
sojourn  of  the  egg  in  the  uterus,  it  receives  its  outer  layer 
of  fluid  or  thin  albumen  which  is  by  weight  50  to  60  per 
cent  of  the  total  albumen.  This  thin  albumen  is  taken  in 
by  osmosis  through  the  shell  membranes  already  formed. 

'  Cf.  Gerhartz,  W.,  "Uber  die  zum  Aufbau  der  Eizelle  notwendige 
Energie  (Transformationsenergie)."  Pfliiger's  Arch.,  Bd.  156,  pp. 
1-224,  1914. 


250  Diseases  of  Poultry 

When  it  enters  the  egg  in  this  way  it  is  much  more  fluid 
than  the  thin  albumen  of  the  laid  egg.  The  fluid  albumen 
added  in  this  way  dissolves  some  of  the  denser  albumen  al- 
ready present,  and  so  brings  about  the  dilution  of  the  latter 
in  some  degree.  At  the  same  time,  by  this  process  of  diffu- 
sion, the  fluid  layer  is  rendered  more  dense,  coming  finally 
to  the  consistency  of  the  thin  layer  of  the  laid  egg.  The 
thin  albumen  layer,  however,  does  not  owe  its  existence  in 
any  sense  to  this  dilution  factor,  but  to  a  definite  secretion 
of  a  thin  albumen  by  the  glands  of  the  isthmus  and  uterus. 

The  addition  of  albumen  to  the  egg  is  completed  only  after 
it  has  been  in  the  uterus  from  five  to  seven  hours.  Before 
the  acquisition  of  albumen  by  the  egg  is  completed  a  fairly 
considerable  amount  of  shell  substance  has  been  deposited 
on  the  shell  membranes.  For  the  completion  of  the  shell 
and  the  laying  of  the  egg  from  twelve  to  sixteen,  or  excep- 
tionally even  more,  hours  are  required.^ 

The  main  factor  in  propulsion  of  the  ovum  along  the  oviduct 
appears  to  be  the  peristaltic  movements  of  the  latter ;  it 
is  probable  that  the  cilia  which  line  the  cavity  have  some- 
thing to  do  with  the  rotation  of  the  ovum  on  its  chalazal 
axis. 

With  this  account  of  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the 
female  organs  of  reproduction  in  hand  we  may  proceed  to 
a  consideration  of  their  diseases.  These  diseases  fall  at 
once  into  two  classes  :  (a)  those  affecting  the  ovary,  and  (b) 
those  affecting  the  oviduct. 

1  The  foregoing  account  is  based  upon  that  given  by  Pearl  and  Cur- 
tis, Jour.  Exper.  ZooL,  Vol.  12,  pp.  123  and  124,  1912. 


Diseases  uf  the  Reproductive  Organs  251 

DISEASES    OF   THE    OVARY 

Atrophij  of  the  Ovary 

By  "atrophy"  of  the  ovary  is  meant  a  diminution  in  size 
of  that  organ  accompa;iied  with  a  cessation  of  its  physiolog- 
ical activity.  It  may  shrink  to  the  size  and  appearance 
which  it  has  in  a  very  young  bird.  The  following  sorts  of 
atrophy  of  the  ovary  may  be  distinguished.  The  different 
sorts  are  separated  from  each  other,  not  because  of  any 
difference  in  the  end  result,  but  because  of  the  different 
etiological  factors  concerned. 

1.  Ph^'siological  atrophy. 
a.   Temporary. 

h.    Permanent. 

2.  Congenital  atrophy  (Pseudo-hermaphroditism) . 

3.  "Black  atrophy." 

A  physiological  diminution  in  size  or  partial  atrophy  of 
the  ovary  occurs  normally  in  fowls  when  after  a  period  of 
laying  they  go  into  a  more  or  less  prolonged  resting  period. 
This  condition  of  the  ovary  is  usually  (in  fowls  under  two 
years  old)  only  temporary.  The  organ  resumes  its  normal 
size  and  activity  after  a  time.  In  old  birds  (3  to  6  or  more 
years  of  age)  it  not  infrequently  happens  that  the  ovary  passes 
into  an  atrophied  condition,  and  remains  permanently  in  that 
condition  thereafter.  In  such  cases  the  bird  as  a  whole,  and 
the  ovary  in  particular,  may  be  perfectly  healthy,  showing  no 
sign  of  disease.  Cases  of  permanent  physiological  atrophy 
of  the  ovary  have  been  observed  by  the  writers  as  follows : 

One  case  in  a  White  Crested  Black  Polish. 

One  case  in  a  Cornish  Indian  Game. 

Several  cases  in  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks.  All  of  the 
latter  were  birds  of  very  high  fecundity  (200  or  more  eggs 
per  annum)  in  their  pullet  years. 


252 


Diseases  of  Poultry 


It  should  be  noted  that  in  what  is  here  called  permanent 
physiology  atrophy  of  the  ovary  there  is  no  associated  change 
of  the  secondary  sexual  characters.  That  is,  the  hen  does 
not  assume  cock  plumage,  spurs,  enlarged  comb  and  wattles, 
nor  any  other  of  the  secondary  sexual  characters  normal  to 


^^^H^^^V 

^B 

■^^m'i^;^ 

'^^^^^^^^^1 

^M 

iMi 

^m 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^H 

^^^^^^^^^^^^1 

Fig.  56.  —  Showing  a  case  of  incomplete  hermaphroditism.  In  front  of 
the  line  ab  the  bird  has  the  characters  of  the  male,  behind  it  the  char- 
acters of  the  female.  The  ovary  was  not  functional  in  this  bird.  (Origi- 
nal.) 

the  male.  This  indicates  that  in  permanent  phj^siological 
atrophy  (just  as  is  known  to  be  the  case  in  temporary)  the 
only  function  of  the  ovary  which  is  disturbed  is  that  which  is 
involved  in  egg  formation.  The  activity  of  the  organ  in 
regard  to  producing  an  internal  secretion  which  in  some  way 
controls  the  secondary  sexual  characters  remains  unchanged. 
As  congenital  atrophy  of  the  ovary  are  to  be  classed  cases  of 


Diseases  of  the  Reproductive  Organs  253 

psuedo-hermaphroditism  in  fowls.  In  such  cases  a  true, 
functioning  ovary  never  develops.  There  may  be  a  body 
which  in  gross  features  resembles  an  ovary,  but  it  is  inactive 
and  does  not  take  even  the  first  steps  in  oogenesis  (egg 
formation) . 

There  may  or  may  not  be  a  testis  like  body  present  in 
these  cases.  Not  only  is  the  egg  producing  activity  absent 
in  such  cases,  but  also  in  many  of  them  at  least,  the  internal 
secretion  normally  produced  by  the  ovary  is  lacking  also. 
The  bird  then  takes  on  some  or  all  of  the  secondary  sexual 
characters  of  the  male.  The  appearance  of  such  a  bird  is 
shown  in  Fig.  56. 

As  "black  atrophy"  of  the  ovary  is  here  designated  the 
peculiar  diseases  of  the  ovary  first  observed  more  than  a 
century  ago  in  England  as  occurring  in  pheasants.  The 
striking  feature  of  the  disease  is  that  under  its  influence  the 
bird  assumes  the  plumage  appropriate  to  the  male.  The 
change  in  the  ovary  and  oviduct  induced  by  the  disease 
appears  to  be  an  atrophy  accompanied  by  a  blackening  which 
is  probably  a  true  melanosis.  The  following  account  of  an 
outbreak  of  this  disease  about  fifty  years  ago  by  Hamilton  ^ 
is  of  interest.  "In  the  years  1858,  1859,  and  1860  this 
peculiar  alteration  of  structure  in  the  female  organs  of 
generation  in  the  Pheasants  was  particularly  prevalent  in 
some  parts  of  England.  I  had  the  opportunity  of  examin- 
ing many  specimens,  and  was  able  completely  to  confirm 
Mr.  Yarrell's  views  on  this  subject.  Indeed,  the  majority 
of  the  birds  were  young  females,  many  of  them  being  birds 
of  the  year,  some  being  in  their  first  molt.  I  found  also 
that  the  plumage  varied  and  approached  that  of  the  male, 
not  in  accordance  with  the  age  of  the  bird,  but  with  the 

1  Hamilton,  E.,  "On  the  Assumption  of  the  Male  Plumage  by  the 
Female  of  the  Common  Pheasant."  Proc.  Zool.  Soe.,  London,  1862, 
pp.  23-25. 


254  Diseases  of  PouHry 

amount  of  disease  of  the  generative  organs.  The  greater 
the  destruction  of  the  ovarium  and  oviduct,  the  nearer  the 
plumage  assimihited  that  of  the  male. 

"For  example,  in  birds  with  the  hen-plumage  pre- 
dominating, the  ovarium  and  oviduct  exist  as  in  the 
fecundating  hen,  the  small  ova  lying  in  considerable  numbers 
in  the  ovarium,  the  ovarium  and  oviduct  showing  dark  lead- 
colored  masses  of  disease. 

"In  birds  with  the  plumage  of  the  male  in  a  measure  ex- 
ceeding that  of  the  female,  the  ovarium  is  considerably 
diminished  in  size,  dark-colored,  and  containing  only  a 
few  blackened  ova ;  the  oviduct  is  spotted  with  dark  patches, 
and  considerably  contracted. 

"  And  thirdly,  in  birds  with  the  male  plumage  predominat- 
ing over  that  of  the  female,  the  ovarium  is  reduced  to  a 
small  dark  amorphous  mass,  resembling  the  coagulated  blood, 
the  presence  of  ova  cannot  be  detected,  and  the  oviduct  is 
almost  entirely  obliterated  at  its  junction  with  the  ovarium. 
Thus  it  seems  that  there  are  three  distinct  phases  in  this  pe- 
culiar abnormal  state  of  the  generative  functions. 

"I  have  also  noticed  that,  in  most  cases  where  the  male 
plumage  is  in  excess  of  the  female,  the  tail-feathers  are 
particularly  long,  some  being  as  much  as  19  inches  in  length. 

"Although  Mr.  Yarrell  states  that  this  condition  of  the 
female  generative  organs  is  not  confined  to  the  PhasianidcB, 
and  that  it  has  occurred  in  the  gold  and  silver  pheasants, 
partridges,  pea-fowls,  common-fowl,  common  pigeon,  king- 
fisher, the  common  duck,  and  that  other  classes  of  animals 
are  liable  to  an  influence  similar  in  kind,  particularly  among 
insects  and  Crustacea,  yet  this  disorganization  is  rarely 
observed  except  among  the  Phasianidce,  and  particularly 
when  these  birds  are  produced  in  a  domestic  state,  i.e., 
on  the  present  system  of  breeding  pheasants  in  preserves. 
Very  few  battves  take  place  in  which  some  of  these  birds 


Diseases  of  the  Reirroductive  Organs  255 

(generally  designated  males)  are  not  killed  and  mixed  in- 
discriminately with  the  heaps  of  the  slain. 

"  As  to  the  cause  of  this  disorganization,  if  it  occurred  only 
in  the  old  female,  or  if  it  were  a  common  occurrence  among 
birds  either  of  different  genera  or  of  the  same  genus,  it  could 
be  easily  accounted  for-;  but  when  it  is  generally  found  exist- 
ing among  a  class  of  birds  which  are  bred  in  vast  numbers  in 
a  particularly  artificial  manner,  it  leads  one  to  suppose  that 
the  cause  must  be  connected  with  this  condition." 

In  regard  to  all  sorts  of  atrophy  of  the  ovary  it  should  be 
said  that  there  is  no  known  way  to  treat  them.  Such  cases 
when  they  appear  must  be  accepted  by  the  poultryman  as 
one  of  the  vicissitudes  of  the  business. 

Gangrene  of  the  Ovary 

Salmon  and  other  writers  on  poultry  diseases  following 
him  have  designated  as  gangrene  a  condition  of  the  ovary 
relatively  often  found  at  post-mortem.  Salmon's  discussion 
of  the  matter  is  as  follows :  "  This  disease  is  quite  common 
with  all  varieties  of  poultry.  On  examination  of  the  ovary 
after  death,  the  ova  are  found  in  different  stages  of  develop- 
ment, but  instead  of  being  yellowish-pink  in  color,  with  the 
blood  vessels  well  defined,  they  are  brown  or  black,  easily 
crushed  and  the  contents  broken  down  into  a  putrid  liquid. 
Death  is  caused  partly  by  peritonitis  and  partly  by  the  ab- 
sorption of  the  products  of  decomposition. 

"The  cause  of  this  trouble  is  not  well  understood.  It 
has  been  attributed  to  the  birds  being  too  fat,  thus  compress- 
ing the  ovary  and  hindering  the  evolution  of  the  ova.  As 
it  may  occur  in  birds  which  are  not  fat  and  as  it  is  evidently 
accompanied  by  the  penetration  and  multiplication  of 
bacteria,  it  is  possibly  an  infectious  disease." 

We  have  not  been  able  to  find  anywhere  in  the  literature 
that  there  has  been  a  thorough  investigation  of  this  disease. 


256  Diseases  of  Poultry 

Ovarian  Tumors 

Tumors  and  cancerous  growths  on  the  ovary  are  not  un- 
common. These  include  several  sorts  of  interest  to  the 
pathologist,  but  not  to  the  practical  poultryman.  From 
the  literature  it  appears  that  at  least  the  following  (and 
probably  other)  kinds  of  new  growths  are  found  to  occur 
on  the  ovary  with  greater  or  less  frequency. 

1.  Benign  tumors,  of  several  types,  including  yolk  tumors. 

2.  Carsinoma. 

3.  Dermoid  cysts. 

For  a  further  discussion  of  the  general  question  of  malig- 
nant new  growths  see  Chapter  XX. 

It  is  quite  clear  that  none  of  these  conditions  can  be 
successfully  treated  by  the  poultryman.  In  the  first  place 
any  cancerous  condition  of  the  ovary  or  oviduct  will  practi- 
cally never  be  diagnosed  until  after  the  bird's  death.  In 
the  second  place  if  it  were  diagnosed  surgery  would  offer  the 
only  possible  means  of  relief,  and  operations  on  the  ovary 
are  much  too  formidable  for  any  one  but  the  expert  to 
undertake. 

Abortion  of  Eggs 

Regarding  this  matter  Wright  ^  has  the  following  to  say : 
"This  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  laying  of  soft  eggs. 
These  last  are  laid  when  mature,  and  usually  by  fat  birds; 
but  when  violently  driven  or  startled,  or  subject  to  violence 
of  any  kind,  or  even  if  suddenly  and  greatly  terrified,  im- 
mature yolks  are  sometimes  detached  from  the  ovary  and 
expelled.  This  is  most  likely  to  happen  with  pullets  not  yet 
laying  but  about  to  lay,  and  being  a  real  miscarriage  or 
abortion,  may  wreck  the  constitution  of  a  valuable  bird 

1  Wright,  L.,  "The  New  Book  of  Poultry."  London,  1902, 
p.  574. 


Diseases  of  the  Reproductive  Organs  'lol 

unless  attended  to.  It  is  distinguished  from  the  other  by 
not  occurring  as  a  rule  in  fat  birds ;  by  the  immature  and 
small  size  of  the  yolk  or  yolks;  generally  also  by  hemor- 
rhage ;  and  always  by  signs  of  illness  of  chicks  afterwards. 
Any  such  bird  should  be  placed  for  a  few  days  in  a  quiet  and 
comfortable  but  rather  dark  pen,  with  a  nest  in  case  of  need, 
and  fed  on  a  little  bread  and  milk.  Quiet  rest  is  the  main 
thing,  but  20  grains  bromide  of  potassium  may  be  dissolved 
in  half  a  pint  of  drinking  water.  With  such  care  the  event 
may  be  entirely  recovered  from." 

Yolk  Hypertrophy 

There  are  a  number  of  cases  on  record  where  the  yolks 
formed  by  the  ovary  have  been  very  much  larger  than  nor- 
mal. These  "giant  yolks"  are  due  to  a  diseased  condition 
of  the  organ,  possibly  contingent  upon  too  much  forcing  for 
egg  production.  Such  cases  have  been  described  by  Gurlt,^ 
and  more  recently  by  von  Durski.'^ 

When  yolks  become  very  large  in  this  way  they  may 
break  loose  from  the  ovary  without  any  rupture  of  the  follicle 
wall  along  the  stigma  but  a  breaking  or  tearing  loose  of  the 
stalk  or  pedicle  of  the  follicle. 

Failure  of  Follicle  Wall  to  Rupture 

Closely  connected  with  the  last  diseased  condition  is  one 
discussed  by  von  Durski  in  which  the  follicle  wall  fails  to 
rupture  and  release  the  yolk.  In  consequence  of  this,  in  the 
case  described  by  von  Durski,  the  follicle  wall  became 
stretched  and  pulled  out  into  a  long  and  very  much  twisted 

1  Gurlt,  Mag.  f.  d.  ges.  Tierheilk.     1849. 

''von  Durski,  "Die  pathologische  Veranderungen  des  Eies  und 
Eileiters  bei  den  Vogeln."     Berlin,  1907. 


258  Diseases  of  Poultry 

stalk.  This  stalk  held  the  hard  and  decayed  yolk  fast  to 
the  ovary.  In  cases  of  this  kind  the  stalk  sometimes  breaks, 
and  the  yolk  inclosed  in  the  follicle  and  with  the  end  of  the 
stalk  attached,  passes  down  the  o\'iduct  acquiring  albumen, 
membranes  and  shell.  In  still  other  instances  the  stalk  breaks 
and  the  follicle  and  contained  yolk  drops  into  the  abdominal 
cavity. 

DISEASES    OF   THE    OVIDUCT 

Diseases  of  the  oviduct  are  relatively  common  and  cause 
a  steady  and  probably  in  the  aggregate  rather  large  loss  to 
the  poultryman.  Fortunately  some  of  the  diseases  of  the 
oviduct  are  more  amenable  to  treatment  than  are  those  of  the 
ovary.  Further  these  diseases  in  many  cases  show  plain  ex- 
ternal symptoms  at  a  relatively  early  stage.  Then  they  may 
be  recognized  and  treated  while  it  is  still  possible  to  effect 
a  cure.     This  is  usually  not  the  case  with  ovarian  diseases. 

The  general  external  symptoms  of  the  commoner  diseases 
of  the  oviduct  are  very  much  like  those  of  constipation.  The 
poultryman  watching  his  birds  is  indeed  rather  likely  to  con- 
fuse the  two.  But  if  so  no  harm  is  done.  The  thorough  clean- 
ing out  of  the  alimentary  tract,  and  stimulation  of  the  liver 
indicated  in  the  treatment  of  constipation  is  the  very  best 
thing  to  be  done  in  cases  of  inflammation  and  similar  disorders 
of  the  oviduct. 

Anatomy  of  the  Oviduct 

In  order  to  understand  more  clearly  the  pathological 
conditions  of  the  oviduct  it  is  well  to  consider  briefly  at  this 
point  some  facts  regarding  the  normal  anatomy  and  histology 
of  this  organ.  Here  we  shall  follow  the  accounts  given  by 
two  of  the  authors  in  earlier  papers.^ 

The  oviduct  of  a  laying  hen  is  a  large,  much  coiled  tube 

1  Curtis,  M.  R.,  "The  Ligaments  of  the  Oviduct  of  the  Domestic 


Diseases  of  the  Reproductive  Organs  259 

jSUing  a  large  part  of  the  left  half  of  the  abdominal  cavity. 
It  is  suspended  from  the  dorsal  body  wall  and  lies  dorsal 
to  the  abdominal  air  sac.  Its  anterior  end  is  expanded 
into  a  large  funnel  which  is  spread  out  beneath  the  ovary 
in  such  a  way  that  the  mouth  of  the  tube  faces  the  ovary. 

The  oviduct  is  divided  into  five  main  parts,  readily  dis- 
tinguishable by  gross  observation.  Beginning  at  the 
anterior  end,  there  are,  in  order :  (a)  the  infundibulum  or 
funnel  (Fig.  57,  A) ;  (6)  the  albumen  secreting  portion  (Fig. 
57,  B) ;  (c)  the  isthmus  (Fig.  57,  C) ;  (d)  the  uterus  or 
"  shell  gland "  so  called  (D) ;  and  (e)  the  vagina  (E).  The 
functions  of  these  different  parts  have  already  been  indicated 
(cf.  pp.  248). 

The  chief  features  in  the  finer  structure  of  the  oviduct 
may  be  described  as  follows : 

Two  muscular  layers,  an  outer  longitudinal  and  an  inner 
circular  layer  can  be  distinguished  in  all  parts  of  the  oviduct. 
The  inner  surface  of  the  oviduct  is  thrown  into  a  number  of 
primary  longitudinal  ridges.  The  epithelium  over  these 
ridges  forms  secondary  folds.  In  the  uterus  the  ridges  as 
such  are  lost,  and  instead  there  are  a  number  of  leaf-like 
folds  of  the  inner  surface. 

Three  types  of  glands  are  described:  (1)  Unicellular 
epithelial  glands  occurring  between  the  ciliated  cells  in  all 
parts  of  the  oviduct  except  the  anterior  portion  of  the  funnel. 

(2)  Glandular  grooves.  These  are  accumulations  of  gland 
cells  at  the  bottom  of  the  grooves  between  the  secondary 
folds  of  the  epithelium.  These  are  found  only  in  the  funnel 
region.     But  there  they  occur  well  towards  the  anterior  end. 

(3)  In  all  parts  of  the  oviduct  between  the  funnel  and  the 
vagina  there  is  a  thick  layer  of  glands  beneath  the  epithe- 

Fowl."  Me.  Agr.  Expt.  Stat.  Bui.  167,  pp.  1-20,  4  plates,  1910. 
Surface,  F.  M.,  "The  Histology  of  the  Oviduct  of  the  Domestic 
Hen."  Me.  Agr.  Expt.  Stat.  Ann.  Rept.,  1912,  pp.  395-430,  5  plates. 


260 


Diseases  of  Poultry 


Fig  57.  —  Oviduct  removed  from  a  laying  bird  and  cut  open  along  the  point 
of  attachment  of  the  ventral  ligament.  It  is  opened  back,  showmg  the 
characteristic  glandular  regions.  A,  funnel;  B,  albumen-secretmg  re- 
gion ;  X,  isthmus  ring ;  C,  isthmus ;  D,  shell  gland ;  and  E,  vagina. 
(Original.) 


Diseases  of  the  Reproductive  Organs  261 

lium.  These  are  called  tubular  glands.  They  consist  of 
long  convoluted  and  branched  tubules  which  open  to  the 
lumen  of  the  oviduct  by  short  epithelial  ducts.  These 
tubular  glands  are  homologous,  structurally  at  least,  with 
the  glandular  grooves  of  the  funnel.  The  tubular  glands 
reach  their  greatest  development  in  the  albumen  secreting 
region.  Histologically  the  unicellular  epithelial  glands 
present  a  similar  appearance  in  all  parts  of  the  oviduct  ex- 
cept the  vagina.  In  this  latter  region  the  cells  are  longer 
and  much  narrower  and  have  a  slightly  different  arrangement 
than  in  other  parts  of  the  oviduct. 

The  walls  of  the  tubular  glands  consist  of  large  gland  cells 
which  in  the  albumen  portion  and  the  isthmus  of  a  laying 
hen  have  small,  irregularly  shaped,  dark  staining  nuclei 
which  lie  well  towards  the  basal  ends  of  the  cells.  In  these 
two  regions  the  protoplasm  of  the  cells  contains  rather 
coarse  granules  which  vary  greatly  in  size. 

The  line  of  demarcation  between  the  albumen  region  and 
the  isthmus  is  characterized  by  the  absence  of  these  tubular 
glands  in  that  region.  The  cells  of  the  tubular  glands  in 
the  albumen  region  and  in  the  isthmus  present  the  same 
histological  appearance. 

In  the  uterus  the  cells  which  form  the  tubular  glands  have 
a  somewhat  different  appearance.  The  nuclei  of  these  cells 
are  large  with  regular  outlines  and  are  situated  near  the 
center  of  the  cells.  The  protoplasm  is  very  finely  granular 
and  is  quite  different  from  the  coarsely  granular  condition 
found  in  other  parts  of  the  oviduct. 

The  tubular  glands  or  any  homologous  structures  are 
entirely  absent  from  the  vagina.  Only  the  unicellular 
epithelial  glands  occur  there. 


262  Diseases  of  Puidtry 

Inflammation  of  Oviduct 

This  is  one  of  the  most  important  and  common  diseases  of 
the  oviduct.  It  may  occur  alone  or  in  association  with  other 
morbid  conditions  of  this  organ. 

Diagnosis.  —  Combining  the  accounts  of  various  observers, 
it  may  be  said  that  a  bird  affected  with  inflammation  of 
the  oviduct  at  first  shows  indications  of  a  desire  to  lay  with- 
out being  able  to  produce  eggs,  or  it  may  lay  eggs  containing 
more  or  less  blood  or  eggs  without  shells  or  small  and  mis- 
shaped eggs  containing  albumen  but  no  yolk,  or  finally  the 
yolk  may  be  dropped  without  any  covering  of  albumen  or 
shell.  There  is  a  continual  and  violent  straining  (some- 
times resulting  in  apoplexy).  The  wings  are  dropped  and 
the  feathers  puffed  out.  As  the  inflammation  increases 
there  is  high  temperature,  straining  and  an  effort  to  rub 
the  abdomen  upon  the  ground.  In  later  stages  the  bird 
becomes  dull,  indisposed  to  move  and  the  comb  is  pale. 

Etiology.  —  There  are  probably  to  be  distinguished  three 
classes  of  causes  which  lead  to  inflammation  of  the  oviduct. 
These  are : 

1.  Physiological;  from  irritation  due  to  too  frequent 
laying  or  from  too  stimulating  foods  or  condiments. 

2.  Traumatic ;  from  irritation  due  to  too  large  eggs,  or  to 
the  breaking  of  eggs  within  the  oviduct,  or  to  similar  causes. 

3.  Specific  infection ;  it  is  probably  that  alone  or  in  com- 
bination with  the  causes  classed  under  1  and  2  a  specific 
infection  of  the  lining  membranes  of  the  oviduct  may  occur. 

In  an  inflamed  oviduct  there  very  often  is  a  copious  sero- 
fibrinous exudate.  This  hardens  about  any  foreign  body 
(egg,  broken  egg,  etc.)  which  may  be  in  the  oviduct,  and  by 
accretion  causes  this  foreign  body  to  increase  in  size.  This,  of 
course,  makes  it  still  more  irritating,  which  in  turn  provoke? 
further  inflammation  of  the  walls  of  the  duct.     One  some- 


Diseases  of  the  Reproductive  Organs  263 

times  finds  relatively  enormous  masses  of  material  in  a 
diseased  oviduct,  which  have  been  built  up  in  this  way. 
There  is  an  extensive  literature  on  these  "egg  concrements" 
or  "yolk  tumors"  built  up  either  in  the  oviduct  or  in  the 
abdominal  cavity  by  hardened  fibrous  exudate,  about  an 
original  basis  of  a  broken,  or  miscarried,  or  aborted  yolk  or 
yolks.  It  is  not  necessary  to  review  this  literature  here  as 
it  is  only  of  interest  to  the  specialist. 

Treatment.  —  If  this  disease  is  to  be  dealt  with  at  all  the 
treatment  must  be  individual,  since  it  is  something  which 
will  never  aft'ect  considerable  numbers  of  the  flock  at  the 
same  time.  If  individual  treatment  is  to  be  successful  it 
must  be  begun  at  a  relatively  early  stage  of  the  disease. 
Therefore,  it  is  important  that  a  bird  showing  the  symptoms 
which  have  been  described  above  should  be  isolated  at  once 
and  as  a  first  step  in  the  treatment  given  a  purgative  dose  of 
Epsom  salts  (see  p.  53).  All  stimulating  foods  such  as  meat, 
green  cut  bone,  linseed  meal  and  similar  substances,  as 
well  as  condiments  like  condition  powders,  pepper,  etc., 
should  be  immediately  taken  away  from  the  bird.  A  light 
ration  and  plenty  of  green  food  should  be  given.  Salmon 
recommends  following  the  purgative  with  I  drop  of  tincture 
of  aconite  root  3  times  a  day.  Equally  effective,  and  much 
easier  to  administer,  will  be  found  1-10  gr.  aconite  root 
tablets  (see  p.  55). 

Prolapse  of  the  Oviduct  (Eversion) 

It  not  infrequently  happens,  from  one  cause  or  another, 
that  the  lower  portion  of  the  oviduct  becomes  everted  and 
projects  from  the  vent  as  a  mass  of  red  or  purplish  tissue. 
This  condition  is  known  as  j^rolapsus  of  the  oviduct. 

Diagnosis.  —  The  diagnosis  of  this  diseased  condition  is 
simple  and  consists  merely  in  the  observation  of  the  pro- 


264  Diseases  of  Poultry 

lapsed  oviduct.  If  there  is  a  mass  of  red  or  bloody  tissue 
projecting  from  the  vent,  one  is  safe  in  diagnosing  prolapsus. 
The  only  point  which  needs  particular  attention  in  the  di- 
agnosis is  as  to  the  degree  to  which  prolapsus  has  occurred 
when  the  bird  is  discovered.  The  importance  of  this  lies 
in  the  fact  that  on  it  depends  the  treatment  which  it  is 
advisable  to  give.  Where  the  prolapse  is  only  partial  and 
is  discovered  early  it  is  advisable  to  treat  it  by  the  methods 
outlined  below.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  prolapse  is 
extensive  and  has  existed  for  some  time  before  the  bird  is 
seen  so  that  the  mass  of  tissue  has  turned  a  blue  or  purplish 
color  or  has  been  pretty  extensively  picked  and  torn  by  the 
other  birds  in  the  pen,  then  it  is  useless  to  carry  on  any  treat- 
ment and  the  proper  thing  to  do  is  to  kill  the  bird  at  once. 
Etiology.  —  Prolapse  of  the  oviduct  may  be  caused  by  a 
number  of  different  things.  It  is  observed  not  only  in 
old  hens,  but,  in  our  experience,  quite  as  frequently  in 
pullets.  The  fundamental  cause  of  the  condition  is,  of 
course,  a  weakness  of  the  oviduct  walls  and  ligaments, 
chiefly  in  respect  to  their  muscular  portions,  which  makes 
the  oviduct  unable  to  stand  the  strains  put  upon  it  in  egg 
production.     The  immediate  cause  may  be  either : 

1.  Straining  to  lay  a  very  large  (double  yolked)  egg. 
This  is  perhaps  the  most  common  cause. 

2.  Straining  to  lay  when  there  is  an  obstruction  in  the 
oviduct  (egg  bound). 

3.  Constipation.  The  rectum  full  of  hardened  feces 
stimulates  all  organs  in  that  region  of  the  body  to  expulsive 
reflexes. 

4.  Ziirn  says  that  oftentimes  feces  may  become  lodged 
in  the  cloaca  in  a  sort  of  blind  pocket,  and  then  set  up  the 
same  expulsive  reflexes  as  an  egg  in  the  cloacal  or  vaginal 
regions  normally  does.  In  the  effort  to  expel  this  foreign 
body  the  oviduct  may  become  everted. 


Diseases  of  the  Reproductive  Organs  265 

The  most  serious  thing  about  prolapsus  is  that  if  not  dis- 
covered very  shortly  after  it  occurs  it  is  almost  sure  to  result 
fatally,  because  the  everted  portion  will  become  so  badly 
infected  as  to  cause  blood  poisoning,  or  the  protruding  mass 
of  tissue  will  be  picked  and  torn  by  the  other  birds  in  the  pen 
until  there  is  no  hope  of  repair,  whatever  the  treatment. 

Treatment.  —  As  stated  above,  the  advisability  of  treating 
prolapsus  depends  upon  its  degree  and  duration  before  dis- 
covery. 

In  treating  this  condition  the  first  thing  to  endeavor  to 
do  is  to  remove  the  cause.  That  is,  if  the  bird  is  constipated 
give  it  a  rectal  enema  of  warm  soapy  water,  followed  by  ^ 
teaspoon  of  Epsom  salts  by  the  mouth.  If  there  is  a  lump 
of  feces  lodged  in  the  cloaca  this  should  be  carefully  removed. 
The  protruding  mass  of  tissue  should  be  washed  with  warm 
1  to  1000  bichloride  of  mercury  solution,  or  a  warm  ^  per 
cent  cresol  solution.  After  the  protruding  parts  are 
thoroughly  cleansed  they  should  be  well  greased  with  vase- 
line, or  with  the  ointment  already  recommended  (p.  55). 
Then  with  the  fingers  well  greased  an  effort  should  be  made 
to  replace  the  protruding  mass  in  the  body.  In  doing  this 
one  should  proceed  with  the  greatest  gentleness.  In  most 
cases  with  care  and  patience  it  is  possible  to  reduce  the 
prolapsus,  that  is,  to  get  the  extruded  tissue  back  into  the 
body  in  approximately  its  normal  position. 

After  the  parts  have  been  carefully  replaced  in  normal 
position  the  next  point  to  be  considered  in  the  treatment 
is  to  insure  that  they  shall  stay  there.  That  is  to  say,  it 
is  necessary  some  way  to  bring  about  a  healthy  degree  of 
contraction  of  the  muscular  walls  of  the  oviduct  so  as  to 
hold  the  parts  in  place  permanently.  In  order  to  do  this 
Salmon  recommends  the  use  of  ergot.  Robinson  follows 
Salmon  in  this  recommendation.  It  should  be  said,  however, 
that  it  is  doubtful  whether  this  treatment  is  advisable. 


266  Diseases  of  Poultry 

Ergot  is  a  rather  violent  poison  for  poultry.  It  seems  likely 
that  the  treatment  recommended  by  Salmon  and  Robinson 
is  based  on  a  theory  that  the  action  which  ergot  has  on  the 
mammalian  uterus  will  be  duplicated  on  the  fowl's  oviduct 
rather  than  upon  actual  experience  in  administering  the 
drug  to  poultry.  The  measure  recommended  by  Ziirn  to 
bring  about  a  healthy  contraction  of  the  replaced  oviduct 
in  cases  of  prolapsus  would  seem  to  be  simpler  and  on  the 
whole  more  likely  to  yield  desirable  results  than  the  ergot 
treatment.  Ziirn  recommends  that  a  lump  of  ice  be  placed 
in  the  cloaca  after  the  prolapsed  oviduct  is  returned  to  its 
place  and  that  this  treatment  be  followed  up  for  some  hours. 

The  bird  should  be  kept  in  a  small  coop,  partly  darkened, 
where  there  will  be  every  inducement  for  it  to  remain  per- 
fectly quiet.  The  success  of  the  treatment  depends  very 
much  on  keeping  the  bird  quiet  for  a  few  days.  It  should 
be  fed  only  a  light  and  unstimulating  ration  with  plenty  of 
-green  food. 

Prognosis.  —  If  discovered  early  enough  prolapsus  is 
curable. 

Obstruction  of  the  Oviduct  {"Egg  Bound'') 

Perhaps  the  commonest  of  all  diseased  conditions  of  the 
oviduct  is  that  which  leads  the  poultryman  to  say  that  a 
bird  is  "egg  bound."  By  this  is  meant  that  there  is  some- 
thing in  the  oviduct  which  the  bird  is  not  able  to  pass  to 
the  outside  and  which  in  turn  prevents  the  normal  passage 
of  eggs.  In  many  cases  this  is  not  properly  speaking  a 
disease  at  all  but  rather  an  accident.  Other  cases,  however, 
depend  upon  a  true  diseased  condition  of  the  oviduct. 

Diagnosis.  —  The  s,\Tnptoms  of  this  trouble,  as  they  are 
usually  described,  consist  chiefly  in  the  obvious  fact  that  the 
hen  is  trying  to  lay  but  cannot  extrude  the  egg.     If  this 


Diseases  of  the  Reproductive  Organs  267 

struggle  is  kept  up  long  enough  the  bird  will  become  ex- 
hausted, and  show  it  by  keeping  quiet,  with  roughened 
plumage  and  the  general  aspect  of  being  ill.  Sometimes  the 
egg  can  be  felt  from  the  vent. 

All  these  general  symptoms  of  egg  bound  condition  may 
be  observed  in  mild  form  in  a  great  many  cases  with  birds 
which  subsequently  lay  the  egg  without  trouble.  In  many 
instances  the  extrusion  of  an  egg  which  is  finally  successfully 
laid  is  attended  with  a  good  deal  of  difficulty.  There  are 
all  degrees  of  gradation  between  this  somewhat  difficult 
but  still  normal  laying  and  the  condition  of  complete  obstruc- 
tion of  the  oviduct  w^here  the  egg  cannot  be  passed  at  all. 
The  practical  consideration  to  which  this  leads  is  that  one 
should  not  be  too  hasty  in  applying  treatment  for  the  egg- 
bound  condition.  A  diagnosis  of  the  trouble,  in  other  words, 
should  not  be  finally  settled  upon  until  there  remains  no 
doubt  that  the  hen  is  not  going  to  pass  the  egg  without  help 
from  the  outside. 

It  must  also  be  remembered  that  in  many  cases  of  obstruc- 
tion of  the  oviduct,  the  obstruction  is  so  far  up  that  it  cannot 
be  felt  from  the  outside.  In  such  cases  the  diagnosis  must 
be  made  upon  the  general  behavior  of  the  hen,  and  in  partic- 
ular in  regard  to  going  frequently  on  the  nest  without 
laying. 

Etiology.  —  In  considering  the  causes  of  obstruction  of 
the  oviduct  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish  between  several 
different  sorts  or  categories.     This  may  be  done  as  follows : 

1.  Simple  "egg  bound"  condition,  in  which  a  normal  egg 
is  lodged  in  the  uterus  or  vagina  and  cannot  be  expelled. 
This  inability  to  expel  the  egg  may  be  due  to  any  one  or  a 
combination  of  the  following  causes  acting  together : 

a.  Egg  of  too  large  size,  so  that  it  is  mechanically  difficult 
or  impossible  to  force  it  through  the  natural  passage.  Robin- 
son regards  this  as  the  most  common  cause. 


268  Diseases  of  Poultry 

b.  Exhaustion  (true  physiological  fatigue)  of  the  muscu- 
lar walls  of  the  oviduct.  This  condition  results  after  long 
continued  and  unsuccessful  attempts  to  expel  the  egg.  It 
leads  to 

c.  Atony  and  paralysis  of  the  duct,  in  which  the  muscular 
walls  are  incapable  of  making  any  effective  contraction  at 
all. 

2.  Complicated  "egg  bound"  conditions  in  which  the 
fundamental  source  of  the  trouble  is  not  simply  mechanical, 
and  in  which  usually  the  portions  of  the  oviduct  anterior 
to  the  uterus  are  involved.  In  this  general  category  the 
following  sorts  of  cases  are  to  be  included. 

a.  Atony  and  paralysis  of  the  upper  portions  of  the  ovi- 
duct. This  condition  may  exist  for  a  long  time  without 
being  recognized. 

h.  Inflammation  of  the  oviduct  leading  to  the  formation 
of  fibrous  exudate  which  accumulates  in  the  duct,  until  it 
may  form  a  mass  of  relatively  enormous  size  (usually  with 
one  or  more  yolks  as  a  nucleus)  completely  obstructing  the 
duct,  and  eventually  leading  either  to  gangrene  or  rupture 
of  the  walls,  or  both. 

c.  Volvolus,  or  twisting  of  the  oviduct  about  its  own 
long  axis,  completely  obliterating  the  cavity. 

d.  Stenosis  or  stricture  of  the  oviduct.  This  may  result 
from  several  causes.  One  frequent  one  is  that  in  laying  a 
very  large  egg  the  oviduct  wall  becomes  torn  to  greater  or 
less  degree,  and  subsequently  heals.  The  scar  tissue  con- 
tracts the  Cavity  and  a  stricture  is  thus  caused. 

Treatment.  —  Whether  treatment  is  or  is  not  likely  to  be 
effective  depends  upon  which  of  the  two  main  categories 
above  defined  any  given  case  belongs  to.  Simple  obstruc- 
tion of  the  oviduct  may  be  successfully  treated.  In  cases 
of  complicated  obstruction  treatment  is  not  indicated,  for 
a  variety  of  reasons.     These  conditions  are  in  the  first  place 


Diseases  of  the  Reproductive  Organs  269 

difficult  to  diagnose,  and  offer  little  prospect  of  successful 
cure  even  after  a  diagnosis  has  been  made. 

The  best  advice  which  has  come  to  our  attention  for  the 
treatment  of  the  simple  egg  bound  condition  was  published 
some  years  ago  in  the  English  journal  Poultry  and  is 
here  quoted  verbatim :' 

"  It  is  a  good  plan  to  watch  those  birds  that  are  about  to 
lay.  Should  they  visit  the  nest  frequently  during  the  course 
of  the  day  and  leave  without  depositing  an  egg,  it  is  almost 
certain  that  something  is  wrong  and  when  a  pullet  is  in 
such  a  state  there  are  three  good  remedies  that  may  be  tried. 
The  first  is :  Take  the  bird  up  gently,  and  hold  her  so  that 
her  stern  is  over  the  mouth  of  a  jug  of  boiling  water,  that 
the  steam  arising  therefrom  may  get  to  the  parts  and  help 
to  relax  and  procure  delivery  of  the  egg.  If  this  has  not  the 
desired  effect  after  an  hour's  rest  in  a  quiet  coop,  the  vent 
should  be  oiled  gently  with  a  feather,  and  the  hen  given  a 
powder  composed  of  1  grain  of  calomel  and  1-12  grain  of 
tartar  emetic.  The  powder  may  be  mixed  in  a  bolus  of  food, 
and  put  into  the  bird's  crop.  If  it  be  acting  properly,  a 
marked  improvement  should  be  noticeable  in  the  bird  a  few 
hours  afterwards,  while  a  second  powder  given  two  days 
subsequently  will  probably  complete  the  cure.  It  is  advis- 
able for  a  while  to  feed  the  fowl  sparingly  on  a  somewhat 
low  diet,  withholding  any  fat  forming  food,  and  giving  lime- 
water  to  drink,  after  the  sj'stem  is  rid  of  the  powder.  The 
second  remedy  was  advocated  by  Dr.  H.  B.  Greene,  .  .  . 
and  is  best  applied  when  the  egg  can  be  felt.  It  is :  Let 
an  assistant,  seated  on  a  chair,  hold  the  bird  firmly  on  his 
knees  on  its  back,  with  the  vent  directed  away  from  him. 
Seating  yourself  opposite,  with  the  finger  and  thumb  of  the 
left  hand  outside  the  bird's  body,  push  the  egg  firmly  but 
carefully  towards  the  vent,  until  it  is  plainly  visible,  and, 
keeping  it  in  that  position,  with  a  bradawl  in  the  right  hand 


270  Diseases  of  Poultry 

puncture  the  egg  shell,  evacuate  the  contents  of  the  egg 
with  an  egg-spoon,  and  afterwards  with  a  pair  of  tweezers 
break  down  and  take  out  the  shell  piece  by  piece  until  as- 
sured by  passing  the  finger  into  the  vent,  that  the  cloaca  is 
empty.  Special  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  injuring  the 
bird  with  the  point  of  the  awl ;  and  one's  assistant  must 
maintain  a  steady  and  firm  hold  on  the  fowl.  A  third  method 
of  relieving  an  egg  bound  hen  was  recommended  by  a 
correspondent  in  our  issue  of  June  10,  1898,  and  has  since 
been  frequently  tried  by  several  poultry  keepers,  and  found 
very  efficacious.  '  When  a  hen  is  in  that  state  I  hold  her  over 
some  hot  water,  bathing  the  vent  at  the  same  time.  After 
this  I  use  a  small  penknife  (blunt)  in  the  following  manner : 
Placing  the  edge  of  the  blade  along  the  first  finger  so  that 
the  end  is  level  with  the  finger  end,  I  push  the  finger  with 
the  knife  into  the  vent  until  they  touch  the  egg;  then  I 
begin  to  scrape  until  I  hear  that  I  have  scraped  the  rind  or 
skin  away  from  the  egg  (I  mean  outside  the  egg).  The  hen 
is  then  placed  on  the  nest,  and  I  will  guarantee  she  will  lay 
in  20  minutes,  or  in  most  cases  even  less  than  that.  I  got 
this  advice  from  a  man  who  has  kept  poultry  on  a  small 
scale  for  50  years.  I  have  tried  it  several  times,  and  have 
never  known  a  hen  to  be  egg  bound  a  second  time.  This 
method,  it  would  appear,  saves  the  egg.  The  great  thing 
throughout  is  to  keep  the  bird  quiet,  and  in  future  to  avoid 
extra  fat  forming  food.'" 

Prognosis.  —  Good  in  cases  of  simple  obstruction  if  taken 
in  hand  early ;    bad  in  all  cases  of  complicated  obstruction. 

Rupture  of  the  Oviduct 

In  some  cases  of  complicated  obstruction,  and  in  cases  of 
severe  inflammation  the  walls  of  the  oviduct  may  break 
and  allow  the  contents  to  escape  into  the  abdominal  cavity. 


Diseases  of  the  Reproductive  Organs  271 

In  such  cases  death  usually  ensues  in  a  relatively  short  time 
as  a  result  of  peritonitis.  These  cases  are  incurable ;  in- 
deed the  trouble  is  usually  not  known  till  after  the  bird  dies. 
The  lower  portion  of  the  oviduct  (vagina)  or  the  cloaca  may 
be  ruptured  in  passing  a  very  large  egg.  If  the  wounds 
made  in  this  way  are  relatively  small  they  will  usually  heal 
without  any  trouble.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  such  tears  are 
extensive  they  may  very  easily  become  infected,  and  unless 
treated  properly  in  accordance  with  the  general  directions 
given  in  Chapter  XXI  for  the  treatment  of  wounds,  the  bird 
will  die  of  blood  poisoning. 

Lately  in  some  experimental  work  we  have  shown  that 
extensive  ruptures  of  the  upper  part  of  the  oviduct  (albumen 
portion)  will  heal  spontaneously  and  leave  no  trace  of  the 
injury.  We  have  removed  large  pieces  from  the  oviduct 
wall  in  this  way,  only  to  find  the  bird  laying  in  a  perfectly 
normal  way  in  a  month  or  so  after  the  operation.  At 
autopsy  only  a  small  scar  or  else  no  trace  whatever  of  the 
wound  could  be  found. 

Gangrene  of  Oviduct 

This  may  result  from  severe  and  complicated  obstruction. 
What  is  meant  by  "gangrene"  is  that  walls  of  the  oviduct 
die,  and  putrefy.  This  causes  general  blood  poisoning  from 
which  the  bird  dies.  Gangrene  of  the  oviduct  most  frequently 
follows  severe  cases  of  complicated  obstruction  where  there 
is  a  mass  of  fibrous  exudate  deposited  in  the  oviduct.  There 
is  not  the  slightest  hope  of  successfully  treating  such  cases. 

Breaking  of  Egg  in  Oviduct 

It  sometimes  happens  that  an  egg  in  the  upper  portion 
of  the  oviduct,  before  it  has  acquired  any  shell,  is  by  acci- 


272  Diseases  of  Poultry 

dent  broken.  There  is  a  belief  common  amongst  poultry- 
men  that  this  is  always  immediately  fatal.  There  is  but 
little  discussion  of  the  subject  in  the  literature,  but  our 
experience  here  indicates  that  two  sorts  of  results  may  follow 
the  breaking  of  an  egg  in  the  oviduct.     These  are : 

1.  An  inflammatory  condition  of  the  oviduct  is  induced 
leading  to  copious  secretion  from  the  glands  of  the  albumen 
portion  of  the  duct  and  the  isthmus.  There  is  also  a  copious 
fibrous  exudate,  and  the  final  outcome  is  a  severe  case  of 
complicated  obstruction  of  the  oviduct.  Death  in  these 
cases  may  be  delayed  for  a  long  time  after  the  original 
accident.  In  the  absence  of  inflammation  recovery  may 
possibly  occur. 

2.  Death  within  a  short  time  (2  to  3  hours)  after  the 
breaking  of  the  egg,  without  visible  lesion  of  any  organ  of 
the  body.  The  oviduct  is  not  even  inflamed.  Absolutely 
the  only  things  which  are  not  normal  in  such  cases  are  (a) 
the  broken  egg  in  the  oviduct,  and  (h)  the  fact  that  the  bird 
is  dead.  We  have  had  several  such  cases  come  to  autopsy. 
They  are  very  puzzling.  In  them  is  to  be  found  the  basis 
for  the  poultryman's  belief  as  to  the  fatal  character  of  this 
accident.  In  reality  it  seems  probable  that  in  these  cases 
the  thing  which  caused  the  egg  to  be  broken  was  also  the 
cause  of  the  death  of  the  bird.  That  is,  a  blow,  or  any  sort 
of  sudden  shock  violent  enough  to  break  an  egg  in  the  ovi- 
duct might  also  very  well  be  the  cause  of  death.  Such  cases 
need  further  study. 

Abnormal  Eggs 

Owing  to  various  diseased  conditions  of  the  oviduct  many 
different  kinds  of  abnormal  eggs  are  produced  by  fowls. 
The  explanation  of  the  different  types  of  such  eggs  is  usually 
tolerably  clear  if  one  gets  definitely  in  his  mind  the  normal 
physiology  of  egg  production  as  outlined  above.     We  shall 


Diseases  of  the  Reproductive  Or  gam  273 

consider  here  only  some  of  the  more  important  general  classes 
of  such  abnormal  eggs.  Such  eggs  are  very  interesting  from 
the  scientific  standpoint  but  are  of  relatively  little  practical 
significance  to  the  poultry  keeper  because  of  the  rarity  of 
their  occurrence. 

Soft-shelled  Eggs.  —  These  are  eggs  laid  without  a  suffi- 
cient amount  of  shell  substance  covering  the  shell  membrane. 
The  immediate  cause  lies  in  a  failure  of  the  uterus  to  function 
properly.  Regarding  this  class  of  abnormal  eggs  Wright 
has  the  following  to  say :  "  Soft  eggs  may  be  caused  by  lack 
of  shell-material,  which,  if  discovered,  points  to  the  remedy, 
the  most  rapid  being  pounded  raw  oyster-shell.  Or  they 
may  be  caused  by  the  fowls  being  driven  or  frightened,  in 
which  case  they  soon  cease,  and  nothing  need  be  done  un- 
less the  injury  has  been  so  severe  as  to  prematurely  detach 
small  and  unripe  yolks,  when  the  case  becomes  a  real  abor- 
tion, or  they  may  be  caused  by  condiments  and  too  much 
animal  food,  spices  in  particular  leading  frequently  to  all 
sorts  of  trouble  with  the  egg-organs,  particularly  in  the 
INIediterranean  races  of  poultry.  A  few  small  doses  of  Ep- 
som salts  or  jalap,  and  cessation  of  the  extra  stimulus, 
will  remedy  this.  But  far  the  most  usual  cause  is  simple 
over-feeding.  A  little  careful  investigation  will  find  which 
is  in  fault,  and  that  will  indicate  the  appropriate  remedy. 
Want  of  shell  material  is  far  less  common  than  it  used  to  be  ; 
over-feeding  or  over-stimulation  probably  more  so." 

Small,  YolHess  Eggs.  —  These  little  eggs,  variously  called 
"wind-eggs,"  "cock  eggs,"  "witch  eggs,"  "luck  eggs,"  etc., 
are  familiar  to  every  poultry  keeper.  They  contain  no 
definitely  formed  yolk,  and  to  the  casual  observer  seem  to 
consist  of  nothing  but  a  small  shell  filled  with  white.  The 
laying  of  one  of  these  eggs  is  popularly  supposed  to  mark 
the  end  of  a  laying  period.  This  belief  is  without  founda- 
tion in  fact.     They  may  be  produced  at  any  time.     Un- 


274  Diseases  of  Puultry 

published  data  collected  over  a  period  of  years  at  this  Station 
in  regard  to  such  eggs  indicate  that  three  factors  are  funda- 
mentally concerned  in  tljeir  production.     These  are  : 

1.  The  bird  must  be  in  an  active  laying  condition;  the 
more  pronounced  the  degree  of  physiological  activity  of 
the  oviduct,  the  more  likely  are  these  eggs  to  be  produced. 

2.  There  must  be  some  foreign  body,  however  minute,  to 
serve  as  the  stimulus  which  shall  start  the  albumen  glands 
secreting.  This  foreign  body  may  be  either  a  minute  piece 
of  hardened  albumen,  a  bit  of  coagulated  blood,  a  small 
piece  of  yolk  which  has  escaped  from  a  ruptured  yolk,  etc. 

3.  It  seems  likely,  though  this  is  a  point  not  yet  definitely 
settled,  that  ovulation  (i.e.,  the  separation  of  a  yolk  from 
the  ovary)  must  precede  the  secretion  of  albumen  around 
the  foreign  body  to  form  one  of  these  eggs. 

Double  and  Triple  Yolked  Eggs.  —  Eggs  with  two  yolks 
are,  of  course,  quite  common.  They  result  from  a  disturb- 
ance of  the  time  relations  of  ovulation,  of  such  nature  that 
two  yolks  get  into  the  oviduct  at  nearly  the  same  time  and 
become  surrounded  by  common  layers  of  albumen. 

Eggs  with  three  yolks  are  very  rare.  An  egg  of  tliis  kind 
laid  by  a  pullet  at  this  Station  is  shown  in  Fig.  58. 

Studies  made  by  one  of  the  authors  ^  have  thrown  consider- 
able light  on  the  general  problem  of  the  cause  and  nature  of 
multiple-yolked  eggs.  Summarized  some  of  the  chief  re- 
sults were  as  follows :  As  to  frequency  it  appears  that  the 
Maine  Station  flock,  over  a  long  period  of  time,  produces 
531  single-yolked  eggs  to  every  double-yolked  egg.     That  is, 

1  Curtis,  M.  R.,  "Studies  on  the  Physiology  of  Reproduction  in 
the  Domestic  Fowl."  VI.  Double-  and  Triple- Yolked  Eggs.  Biol. 
Bui.,  Vol.  XXVI,  pp.  55-83,  1914. 

"Studies  on  the  Physiology  of  Reproduction  in  the  Domes- 
tie  Fowl."  XI.  Relation  of  Simultaneous  Ovulation  to  the 
Production  of  Double- Yolked  Eggs.  Jour.  Agr.  Research,  Vol.  Ill, 
pp.  375-385,  1915. 


Diseases  of  the  Reproductive  Organs  275 

only  two  tenths  of  1  per  cent  of  the  eggs  are  double-yolked. 
The  ratio  of  double  to  single  yolked  eggs  is  less  than  twice 
as  high  as  the  ratio  of  twin  to  single  births  in  the  human 
family. 

All  birds  are  not  equally  likely  to  lay  double-yolked  eggs. 
In  fact  the  great  majority  of  birds  never  lay  anything  but 
single-yolked  eggs.  There  are,  however,  birds  which  possess 
a  tendency  to  lay  double-yolked  eggs.  Such  an  individual 
may  produce  several  such  eggs.     It  has  been  further  found 


Fig.  58.  —  Triple-yolked  egg.      (Original.) 

that  a  bird  which  possesses  the  tendency  to  lay  double- 
yolked  eggs  is  not  equally  likely  to  produce  them  at  any  age. 
She  is  most  likely  to  produce  them  when  she  is  young. 
Eighty  per  cent  of  all  the  double-yolked  eggs  produced  by 
the  Station  flock  are  produced  by  birds  less  than  eight  months 
old.  We  have  only  a  very  few  records  of  birds  which  have 
laid  double-yolked  eggs  after  their  first  adult  molt. 

It  has  been  usually  supposed  that  double-yolked  eggs 
are  caused  by  the  simultaneous  entrance  of  two  yolks  into 
the  egg  tube  and  the  consequent  common  passage  of  the  two 


276  Diseases  of  Poultry 

yolks  through  the  duct.  A  careful  study  of  the  structure 
of  all  the  double-yolked  eggs  produced  by  the  Station  flock 
shows  that  in  only  a  very  small  per  cent  of  the  cases  (about 
16  per  cent)  have  the  two  yolks  passed  the  entire  length  of 
the  duct  together.  In  such  cases  the  two  yolks  are  inclosed 
in  a  common  thin  layer  of  white  membrane,  the  chalazal 
membrane,  and  have  only  one  pair  of  chalazae.  They  also 
have  common  albumen  envelopes  as  well  as  common  egg 
membrane  and  shell. 

Since  the  formation  of  each  egg  part  (chalazal  membrane 
and  chalazae,  thick  albumen  egg  membrane,  and  shell)  is 
confined  to  a  particular  part  of  the  oviduct,  a  study  of  the 
number  of  secondary  parts  which  are  common  to  the  two 
yolks  of  a  double-yolked  egg  shows  the  level  of  the  duct 
where  the  two  yolks  came  together.  Such  a  study  carried 
out  on  all  double-yolked  eggs  produced  by  the  large  flock  of 
birds  owned  by  this  Station  shows  that  the  two  yolks  unite 
at  every  level  of  the  duct  from  the  mouth  of  the  funnel  to 
the  very  end  of  the  albumen  secreting  portion.  It  shows 
further  that  the  number  of  eggs  of  any  given  structure  ob- 
served is  exactly  equal  to  the  number  expected  on  the  assump- 
tion that  the  union  of  the  two  yolks  occurs  indiscriminately 
at  every  level  of  the  duct  from  the  mouth  of  the  funnel  to 
the  beginning  of  the  isthmus  or  egg  membrane  secreting 
portion.  When  two  eggs  unite  after  the  first  egg  has  received 
its  membrane  the  result  is  two  eggs  at  the  same  time. 

The  structure  of  the  egg  has  shown  us  that  in  a  majority 
of  cases  the  two  yolks  of  a  double-yolked  egg  have  not  passed 
the  entire  length  of  the  duct  together.  On  a  moment's 
reflection  we  see  that  there  was  never  any  a  priori  reason- 
for  the  assumption  that  the  cause  for  the  production  of  a 
double-yolked  egg  was  necessarily  the  simultaneous  dis- 
charge of  two  yolks  from  the  ovary  into  the  oviduct  or 
egg  tube.     The  only  condition  necessary  for  two  yolks  to 


Diseases  of  the  Reproductive  Organs  277 

be  inclosed  in  the  same  egg  membrane  is  that  they  enter 
the  membrane  secreting  portion  of  the  oviduct  together. 
There  are  at  least  three  possibilities  besides  simultaneous 
ovulation  which  may  bring  two  yolks  together  before  they 
reach  this  portion  of  the  oviduct.  First,  the  first  yolk  may 
be  delayed  at  any  level  of  the  duct  forward  to  the  point 
where  the  egg  membrane  begins  to  be  secreted  ;  second,  the 
first  yolk  may  be  returned  up  the  oviduct  and  then  come 
back  in  company  with  the  second  yolk;  and  third,  a  yolk 
may  be  ovulated  into  the  body  cavity  and  picked  up  by  the 
oviduct  shortly  before  or  after  the  ovulation  of  another 
yolk.  It  is,  therefore,  unnecessary  to  assume  that  the 
production  of  a  double-yolked  egg  represents  simultaneous 
or  even  an  abnormally  rapid  succession  of  ovulations,  since 
any  of  these  delays  may  have  been  as  long  as  the  normal 
period  between  ovulations. 

A  study  of  the  structure  of  the  eggs  and  the  egg  records 
of  the  birds  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  double-yolked  eggs 
do  not  necessarily  represent  two  simultaneous  or  even  nearly 
simultaneous  ovulations  ;  but  in  about  a  third  of  the  cases  of 
double-yolked  eggs  the  time  between  the  two  ovulations  must 
have  been  unusually  short  since  the  birds  which  laid  these 
double-yolked  eggs  each  laid  a  normal  egg  on  the  preceding 
day.  A  study  of  the  egg  structure  of  these  double-yolked 
eggs,  where  the  time  between  the  ovulations  is  known  to 
have  been  abnormally  short,  shows  that  they  have  been 
simultaneous  in  only  a  small  per  cent  of  the  cases.  In  fact 
the  two  yolks  have  come  together  at  every  level  of  the  duct 
in  front  of  the  beginning  of  the  isthmus. 

A  study  of  the  ovaries  of  birds  which  had  recently  pro- 
duced double-yolked  eggs  showed  that  each  of  the  two 
yolks  was  discharged  from  a  normal  separate  follicle  exactly 
as  are  the  yolks  of  successive  single-yolked  eggs. 

From  these  recent  studies  of  double-yolked  egg  produc- 


278  Diseases  of  Poultry 

tion  it  is  certain  that  some  individual  hens  have  an  inherent 
tendency  to  lay  double-yolked  eggs,  while  a  great  majority 
of  hens  never  lay  anything  but  normal  single-yolked  eggs. 
A  bird  with  the  tendency  to  double-yolked  egg  production 
is  more  likely  to  produce  double-yolked  eggs  when  she  is 
quite  young  than  later  in  her  life. 

The  two  yolks  of  a  double-yolked  egg  may  enter  the 
oviduct  simultaneously  and  pass  the  entire  length  of  the 
duct  together  receiving  an  entire  common  set  of  egg 
envelopes,  or  they  may  come  together  at  any  level  of  the 
oviduct  from  the  funnel  mouth  to  the  beginning  of  the 
isthmus.  It  is  highly  probable  that  the  two  ovulations 
may  be  either  simultaneous  or  that  they  may  be  separated 
by  any  period  up  to  the  normal  time  which  elapses  between 
ovulations. 

The  production  of  a  double-yolked  egg  is  evidently  seldom 
caused  by  the  simultaneous  discharge  of  two  normal  separate 
follicles  into  the  oviduct.  More  often  it  is  caused  by  the 
successive  discharge  of  separate  follicles  at  times  varying 
from  simultaneity  to  the  normal  period  and  by  the  subse- 
quent union  of  the  eggs  in  the  duct  due  to  a  difference  in 
the  rate  of  passage  of  the  successive  eggs. 

Inclusion  in  Eggs.  —  The  number  of  different  foreign  sub- 
stances which  at  one  time  or  another  have  been  found  in- 
closed in  eggs  is  great.  The  list  includes  blood  streaks  or 
spots,  blood  clots  of  firm  consistency  and  often  considerable 
size,  lumps  of  bacteria,  worms,  fecal  matter,  etc.,  etc. 

From  the  practical  standpoint  the  only  inclusions  which 
need  consideration  are  blood  spots.  Many  inquiries  are  annu- 
ally received  at  this  Station  as  to  what  causes  these  spots  and 
what  to  do  to  get  eggs  which  will  be  free  from  them.  These 
inquiries  are  most  frequent  in  the  spring  months.  The 
only  thing  which  can  be  done  in  such  cases  is  to  candle  the  eggs 
and  sell  only  those  lohich  show  no  spots.     Hens  which  are 


Diseases  of  the  Reproductive  Organs  279 


Fig.  59.  —  Showing  shapes  of  abnormal  eggs  sometimes  found.      (From  von 
Durslvi  after  Landois.) 


280  Diseases  of  Poultry 

perfectly  normal  often  lay  eggs  with  blood  spots,  especially 
in  the  spring  of  the  year  when  laying  is  heavy.  The  blood 
which  makes  the  spot  probably  comes  in  most  cases  from  the 
ovarian  follicle.  When  this  ruptures  a  little  blood  escapes 
into  the  oviduct  and  is  caught  up  in  the  albumen.  The  so- 
called  "liver"  or  "meat"  spots  in  eggs  are  in  nearly  every 
case  thoroughly  hardened,  well  packed  together,  blood  clots. 
They  may  be  of  large  size.  These  inclusions  do  not  repre- 
sent, as  they  are  sometimes  said  to,  portions  of  the  oviduct 
wall  which  have  been  torn  off  and  inclosed  in  the  egg. 

Eggs  of  Abnormal  Shape.  —  There  are  many  other  kinds 
of  abnormal  eggs  besides  those  here  discussed,  but  as  they 
have  no  practical  significance  it  is  not  desirable  to  devote 
further  space  to  them.  In  closing  this  section  we  append 
some  figures  showing  in  outline  some  of  the  curiously  shaped 
eggs  which  have  been  found. 

Ve7it  Gleet  (Cloacitis) 

This  is  a  true  venereal  disease  of  poultry.  It  usually 
begins  with  a  hen,  but  is  transmitted  in  copulation  to  the 
male,  and  by  him  to  other  birds  in  the  flock. 

Diagnosis.  —  Salmon  gives  the  following  clear  account  of 
the  symptoms :  "  The  first  symptom  observed  is  the  fre- 
quent passage  of  excrement  which  is  voided  in  small  quanti- 
ties almost  as  rapidly  as  it  reaches  the  cloaca.  Often  the 
bird  endeavors  to  drop  excrement  when  cloaca  is  entirely 
empty.  This  action  is  due  to  the  tenderness  and  irritability 
of  the  cloaca  which  gives  to  the  bird  the  sensation  of  fullness, 
and  produces  spasmodic  contractions.  If  an  examination 
is  made  the  mucous  membrane  is  found  in  the  early  stages 
to  be  red,  dry,  swollen  and  hot.  In  a  day  or  two  a  discharge 
makes  its  appearance.  It  is,  at  first,  thin  and  watery,  but 
soon  becomes    white,    purulent,  and    offensive.     This  dis- 


Diseases  of  the  Reproductive  Organs       -        281 

charge  collects  upon  the  skin  and  feathers  about  the  vent, 
obstructs  the  passage  and  irritates  the  parts  with  which 
it  comes  in  contact.  The  soiled  skin  becomes  red  and  in- 
flamed, it  may  be  abraded  by  friction  or  by  the  bird  picking 
at  it,  and  thus  sores  or  ulcers  are  started  which  may  become 
quite  troublesome." 

Etiology.  —  The  cause  of  the  disease  has  not  yet  been 
thoroughly  worked  out.  Wright  suspected  it  to  be  identical 
with  human  gonorrhea  because  of  the  similarity  of  symptoms, 
infectiousness,  etc.  However,  he  has  not  been  able  to  isolate 
the  Gonococcus,  or  specific  germ  of  gonorrhea  from  affected 
birds. 

Lewis  and  Clark  ^  report  an  outbreak  of  ^xnt  gleet  among 
recently  purchased  Orpingtons  at  the  poultry  plant  on  the 
New  Jersey  college  farm,  as  a  result  of  which  the  average  egg 
production  for  the  year  was  but  25  per  cent  of  the  theoreti- 
cal. The  percentage  of  fertility  of  the  eggs  was  low,  about 
60,  although  apparently  good  vigorous  male  birds  were  used. 
The  disease  was  found  to  be  very  hard  to  overcome,  and  it  is 
concluded  that  in  dealing  with  it  the  best  method  lies  in 
the  destruction  of  the  affected  fowls. 

Treatment.  —  The  following  is  the  treatment  outlined  by 
Wright :  "Any  hen  found  with  it  should  at  once  be  isolated, 
and  the  male  bird  carefully  examined,  and  if  necessary  also 
isolated.  Give  30  grains  Epsom  salts,  and  twice  a  day  in- 
ject first  a  4  per  cent  solution  of  cocaine,  and  immediately 
afterwards  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  4  grains  to  the 
ounce.  The  fifth  day  commence  a  small  copaiba  capsule 
daily,  and  inject  acetate  of  lead,  1  dram  to  the  pint.  Feed 
rather  low  meanwhile,  and  dust  any  sore  places  outside  with 
iodoform  or  aristol.  If  not  well  after  2  or  3  weeks,  we  would 
kill  the  bird,  as  the  disease  is  not  quite  free  from  danger; 

1  Lewis,  H.  R.,  and  Clark,  A.  L.,  "Poultry  Diseases."  N.  J.  Agr. 
Expt.  Stat.  Kept.,  1913,  pp.  276-279. 


282  Diseases  of  Poidtry 

for  if  the  operator  should  touch  his  eyes  accidentally  before 
he  has  cleansed  his  hands,  the  result  might  be  a  most  violent 
inflammation." 

Diseases  of  the  Male  Reproductive  Organs 

A  number  of  diseases  of  the  male  reproductive  organs  have 
been  described,  but  they  are  all  of  no  practical  significance, 
for  the  reason  that  no  poultryman  ought  ever  to  use  as  a 
breeder  a  male  bird  that  ever  had  an}-  disease  of  these  organs, 
whether  it  had  been  "cured"  or  not. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 
White  Diarrhea 

Of  all  the  diseases  which  the  poultryman  is  called  upon  to 
fight,  there  is  probably  none  so  destructive,  year  after  year, 
as  the  disease  (or  diseases)  known  as  "  white  diarrhea."  The 
loss  of  chicks  ascriberl  to  this  cause  varies  in  different  years 
and  in  different  places  from  10  to  90  per  cent.  It  is  perhaps 
not  too  much  to  say  that  more  than  50  per  cent  of  the  chicks 
hatched  throughout  the  country  are  lost  from  white  diarrhea 
in  its  various  forms.  The  number  of  inquiries  concerning 
this  disease  which  are  annually  received,  and  the  amount 
of  space  devoted  to  it  by  the  poultry  press,  lead  one  to  be- 
lieve that  "white  diarrhea"  is  perhaps  the  worst  enemy  with 
which  the  poultryman  must  contend. 

White  diarrhea  is  more  common  among  artificially  hatched 
and  brooded  chicks  than  among  those  vvhich  have  been 
hatched  and  cared  for  by  hens.  However,  it  is  by  no  means 
unknown  among  the  latter.  ]\Iany  poultrymen  report  as 
heavy  mortality  from  this  disease  among  hen  hatched  and 
reared  chicks  as  from  those  w^hich  were  incubated  and 
brooded  by  artificial  methods. 

Almost  any  chick  that  comes  out  of  the  shell  apparently 
healthy  on  the  21st  day  will  live  for  the  first  week.  If 
white  diarrhea  is  going  to  strike  the  brood  they  usually  begin 
to  show  symptoms  about  the  end  of  the  first  week.  The 
heavy  loss  of  chicks  from  this  disease  occurs  between  the  ages 
of  one  and  three  weeks.  Where  the  brood  is  badly  affected 
283 


284  Diseases  of  Poultry 

chicks  may  continue  to  die  until  the  fourth  or  fifth  week. 
On  the  other  hand  if  a  brood  goes  through  its  first  three 
weeks  of  Hfe  without  being  attacked  by  this  disease  it  is 
practically  safe  from  its  ravages.  White  diarrhea  then  may 
be  said  to  be  limited  to  the  first  three  weeks  of  the  chick's 
life  so  far  as  serious  mortality  from  it  is  concerned.  The 
reason  for  this  no  doubt  is  that  the  digestive  system  of 
chicks  under  three  weeks  old  is  so  delicate  that  even  a 
slight  disturbance  makes  a  very  serious  handicap  for  the 
chick. 

Etiology.  —  Within  recent  years  a  large  number  of  studies 
concerning  the  cause,  prevention  and  cure  of  white  diarrhea 
have  been  conducted.  Investigations  have  been  carried  on 
by  state  and  national  institutions  as  well  as  by  many  private 
individuals.  Consequently  a  large  number  of  alleged  causes 
of  the  disease  are  given  by  different  writers.  Among  these 
may  be  mentioned  :  Debilitated  breeding  stock,  improper 
incubation,  improper  brooding,  overheating,  chilling,  poor 
ventilation,  over-crowding,  poor  or  improper  food  and  filth 
as  well  as  specific  bacteria,  fungi  or  other  parasitic  organisms. 

It  is  doubtful  if  many  of  the  cases  of  true  ivhite  diarrhea  are 
caused  by  physical  or  mechanical  agents.  In  most  cases 
true  white  diarrhea  appears  to  be  an  infectious  disease. 
Such  disease  we  know  is  caused  by  some  form  of  parasitic 
organism.  Without  doubt  improper  incubation,  brooding 
and  feeding,  resulting  in  weakened  chicks,  very  often  lay 
the  foundation  for  the  attacks  of  parasitic  organisms.  In 
many  cases  these  faulty  methods  of  handling  the  eggs  and 
chicks  appear  to  be  the  real  cause  of  the  disease  while  they 
are  really  only  indirect  causes. 

From  this  it  should  not  be  understood  that  such  things 
as  poor  food,  poor  brooding  and  weakened  breeding  stock 
are  of  no  importance  in  the  study  of  white  diarrhea.  It  is 
just  exactly  these  predisposing  factors  which  result  in  chicks 


White  Diarrhea  285 

with  weak  constitutions,  easily  overcome  by  disease  germs. 
Without  doubt  the  points  at  which  most  progress  can  be 
made  in  combating  such  diseases  are  in  the  methods  of  in- 
cubation and  in  the  care  of  the  chicks  for  the  first  three  weeks 
of  their  hves.  Nevertheless  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that 
the  death  of  the  chick  is  caused  by  the  ravages  of  some  mi- 
nute parasitic  organism. 

Within  recent  years  several  investigators  have  discovered 
organisms  which  they  believe  to  be  the  specific  cause  of 
white  diarrhea.  Three  of  these  may  be  mentioned  at  this 
place :  (1)  Coccidium  tencllum  or  cuniculi  producing  the 
disease  called  "coccidiosis."  (2)  Bacterium  pullorum  pro- 
ducing "bacillary  white  diarrhea"  and  (3)  Aspergillus 
fumigatus  and  allied  species,  producing  aspergillosis  or 
brooder  pneumonia  of  chicks.  Of  these  the  first  two  dis- 
eases will  be  considered  in  some  detail  in  the  following 
paragraphs.  Aspergillosis  is  treated  in  a  separate  section 
of  this  chapter  (cf.  p.  173). 

Intestinal  Coccidiosis 

In  1908  Morse  ^  published  a  preliminary  account  of  some 
investigations  on  the  cause  of  white  diarrhea.  He  claimed 
that  microscopic  examination  of  the  intestines  of  chicks 
dying  with  this  disease  revealed  the  presence  of  large  num- 
bers of  protozoan  organisms  which  he  identified  as  Coccidium 
tenellum.  Cole  and  Hadley  ^  of  the  Rhode  Island  Experi- 
ment Station  reported  finding  a  similar  organism  in  white 
diarrhea  chicks.  They  identified  it  as  Coccidium  cuniculi. 
These  two  species  of  coccidium  are  so  nearly  alike  that  it  is 

1  Morse,  G.  B.,  "White  Diarrhea  of  Chicks."  U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agr.  Bur.  Anim.  Indus.  Circ.  128,  pp.  1-8,  1908. 

2  Cole,  L.  J.,  and  Hadley,  P.  B.,  "Blackhead  in  Turkeys." 
Rhode  Island  Agr.  Expt.  Stat.  Bui.  No.  141,  pp.  138-272,  1910. 


286  Diseases  of  Poultry 

very  difficult  to  distinguish  them  except  by  prolonged  study 
of  their  life  cycles. 

Various  species  of  coccidia  have  long  been  known  to  in- 
fest many  domestic  animals.  A  number  of  these  have 
been  described  in  fowls  and  other  birds.  In  many  cases 
they  produce  very  serious  lesions.  But  the  contention  of 
Smith  ^  that  in  many  cases  these  parasites  are  more  or  less 
normal  inhabitants  of  the  digestive  tract  seems  fairly  well 
founded. 

Coccidiosis  in  birds  and  the  relation  of  coccidia  to  the 
disease  known  as  entero-hepatitis  have  been  discussed  on 
pages  71  and  94.  On  page  73  a  detailed  description  of  the 
life  history  of  a  typical  coccidium  is  given.  It  is  supposed 
that  it  is  the  same  coccidium  causing  entero-hepatitis  in 
turkeys  which  is  related  to  white  diarrhea.  For  further 
description  of  this  organism  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
preceding  chapter. 

Hadley  and  Kirkpatrick  ^  have  reported  some  feeding 
experiments  with  these  coccidia  in  which  they  have  been 
able  to  produce  the  disease  in  chicks  several  days  or  weeks 
old.  As  will  be  noted  later,  it  is  claimed  that  infection  with 
the  bacterium  of  bacillary  white  diarrhea  must  take  place 
during  the  first  two  or  three  days  of  the  chick's  life  if  it  is 
to  produce  the  disease.  It  is  possible  that  these  facts  may 
be  of  some  use  in  distinguishing  the  two  forms  of  this  disease. 

Diagnosis.  —  The  symptoms  of  coccidiosis  are  similar  to 
those  of  other  forms  of  white  diarrhea  (cf.  p.  292).  The 
only  exception  is  that  according  to  Morse  the  ceca  are  always 
distended   with  yellowish-white  cheesy  matter.     In   other 

1  Smith,  Theobald,  "Amoeba  meleagris."  Science,  N.  S.,  Vol.  32, 
pp.  509-512,  1910. 

2  Hadley,  P.  B.,  and  Kirkpatrick,  W.  F.,  "Further  Investigations 
upon  White  Diarrhea  of  Chicks."  Successful  Poultry  Jour.,  Vol.  14, 
pp.  18-19,  1909. 


White  Diarrhea  287 

forms  of  white  diarrhea  this  may  or  may  not  be  the  case. 
These  different  forms  of  white  diarrhea  have  been  too  Httle 
studied  as  yet  to  permit  of  an  exact  differential  diagnosis 
on  external  symptoms  even  supposing  that  ever  to  be  pos- 
sible. 

Up  to  the  time  of  writing  no  further  work  has  appeared 
to  substantiate  the  claims  that  this  coccidium  is  an  impor- 
tant cause  of  white  diarrhea.  On  the  other  hand,  work 
with  the  bacillary  form  of  this  disease  has  been  carried  on 
by  a  number  of  investigators.  At  the  present  time  it 
appears  that  by  far  the  greater  number  of  epidemics  of  white 
diarrhea  are  caused  by  the  bacterium  described  below. 

Bacillary  White  Diarrhea 

In  May,  1908,  Rettger  and  Harvey  ^  published  a  paper 
on  "  Fatal  Septicemia  in  Young  Chickens  or  White  Diarrhea." 
From  a  large  number  of  observations  and  experiments  they 
came  to  the  conclusion  that  white  diarrhea  was  caused  by  a 
bacterium.  A  number  of  later  papers  by  Rettger  and  his 
associates  have  appeared  since  then.  In  these  it  has  been 
clearly  proven  that  at  least  one  form  of  white  diarrhea  is 
caused  by  a  bacterium. 

Rettger  took  chicks  which  had  died  with  all  the  symptoms 
of  white  diarrhea  and  by  the  ordinary  bacteriological  methods 
obtained  pure  cultures  of  a  bacterium  which  had  certain 
definite  reactions  and  habits  of  growth.  By  these  methods 
this  bacterium  can  be  distinguished  from  other  kinds.  To 
this  species  of  bacteria  he  gives  the  name  Bacterium  pullorum. 
If  entirely  healthy  chicks  are  inoculated  with  the  pure 
culture    of   this   bacterium    they    almost    invariably    show 

1  Rettger,  L.  F.,and  Harvey,  S.  C,  "Fatal  Septicemia  in  Young 
Chickens  or  White  Diarrhea."  Jour.  Med.  Research.,  Vol.  18,  pp. 
277-290,  1908. 


288  Diseases  of  Poultry 

symptoms  of  white  diarrhea  and  in  many  cases  die.  To 
cite  only  one  case ;  at  the  Storrs  Experiment  Station  (Bui. 
68)  chicks  12  hours  old  were  fed  cultures  of  this  organism. 
During  twenty-five  days  allotted  to  the  experiment  the 
mortality  of  the  infected  chicks  was  76  per  cent,  while  that 
of  the  controls  was  only  4  per  cent. 

In  many  cases  Rettger  was  able  to  find  Bacterium  puUorum 
pure  in  the  artificially  infected  birds.  Further  he  was  able 
to  obtain  the  same  bacterium  from  a  large  number  of  differ- 
ent chicks  gathered  from  widely  different  localities. 

These  results  of  Rettger  and  his  associates  have  been 
confirmed  not  only  by  their  own  later  work  but  also  by 
others.  Thus  Jones  ^  was  able  to  produce  the  disease  in 
healthy  chicks  by  inoculation  with  this  organism.  Inocu- 
lation of  chicks  24  hours  old  gave  a  mortality  of  82.5  per 
cent,  while  in  the  controls  it  was  only  2  per  cent.  Gage  ^ 
isolated  this  organism  from  the  ovaries  of  adult  fowls  and 
proved  by  inoculation  that  it  would  produce  the  disease  in 
young  chicks. 

Conclusive  evidence  has  been  produced  that  it  is  only 
during  the  first  few  days  of  its  life  that  a  chick  is  liable  to 
infection  with  this  disease.  It  has  been  shown  at  the 
Storrs  Station  ^  that  the  greatest  danger  of  infection  lies 
within  the  first  48  hours,  but  that  infection  may  take  place 
up  to  four  days  or  occasionally  later  in  the  case  of  weak 
chickens.    The  same  writers  have  shown  that  in  the  majority 

1  Jones,  F.  S.,  "Fatal  Septicemia  or  Bacillary  White  Diarrhea  of 
Young  Chickens."  Report  of  N.  Y.  State  Vet.  CoUege  for  1910, 
pp.  111-129. 

2  Gage,  G.  E.,  "Notes  on  Ovarian  Infection  with  Bacterium 
pullorum  (Rettger)  in  the  Domestic  Fowl."  Jour.  Med.  Research, 
Vol.  24,  pp.  491-496,  1911. 

'  Rettger,  L.  F.,  Kirkpatrick,  W.  L.,  and  Stoneburn,  F.  H., 
"Bacillary  White  Diarrhea  in  Young  Chicks."  Conn.  (Storrs) 
Agr.  Expt.  Stat.  Bui.  74,  pp.  155-185,  1912. 


White  Diarrhea 


289 


of  cases  the  hen  is  the  source  of  the  infection.  It  has  been 
fairly  well  proven  that  female  chickens  recovering  from 
white  diarrhea  become  bacillus  carriers.  In  such  birds 
these  bacteria  are  found  particularly  in  the  ovary.     In  this 


The  normal  ovary  of  a  laying  hen.     (After  Rettger,  Kirkpatrick 
and  Jones.) 


organ  they  cause  many  of  the  developing  ova  to  become 
abnormal  and  undergo  degeneration  as  shown  in  Fig.  61. 
INIany  of  the  yolks  which  do  not  degenerate  contain  these 
bacteria.  These  infect  the  chick  which  hatches  from  such 
an  egg.  These  chicks  then  serve  to  infect  others  in  the 
incubator  or  in  the  brooder.    This  is  undoubtedly  one  of 


290  Diseases  of  Poultry 

the  reasons  that  incubator  chicks  suffer  more  from  this 
disease  than  hen  hatched  chicks.  In  the  incubator  there 
are  eggs  from  a  large  number  of  different  hens.  There  is  a 
great  probabihty  that  one  of  the  mothers  may  be  a  bacillus 


Fig.  61. — An  ovary  from  a  hen  infected  with  B.  pullorum,  showing  the 
degenerating  and  discolored  ova.  (After  Rettger,  Kirkpatrick  and 
Jones.) 


carrier  and  one  such  infected  chick  may  spread  the  disease 
to  all  the  others.  With  a  hen  there  is  much  less  chance 
that  any  of  the  eggs  she  broods  comes  from  an  infected 
bird.  Hence,  while  some  broods  will  be  infected,  others 
will  not  and  one  easily  gains  the  impression  that  hen  hatched 
chicks  are  less  susceptible.  This  point  will  be  discussed  in 
connection  with  prevention  (p.  299). 


White  Diarrhea 


291 


The  following  figure  taken  from  the  Storrs  Experiment 
Station  Bulletin  68  shows  diagrammatically  how  the  infection 
perpetuates  itself  from  the  hen  to  egg  and  the  chick  and 
from  the  recovered  chick  back  to  the  hen  again. 

Recently  Rettger  ^  and  others  have  shown  that  healthy 
adult  fowls  may  became  infected  both  by  contact  with 
infected    fowls    and    through    infected    litter.     This    adds 


Fig.  G2.  —  Showing  how  bacillary  white  diarrhea  perpetuates  itself  in  the 
breeding  stock.      (After  Rettger  and  Stoneburn.) 


another  means  by  which  the  infection  can  be  spread  through 
the  flock. 

In  this  connection  it  is  worth  pointing  out  that  Smith 
and  Ten  Broeck  ^  have  found  that  the  bacillus  of  fowl 
typhoid  shows  very  many  points  of  resemblance  to  B. 
pullorum.  The  only  differences  found  between  these  bacilli 
are  in  respect  to  their  ability  to  ferment  the  sugars,  dextrose, 

'  Rettger,  Kirkpatrick  and  Jones,  loc.  cit. 

2  Smith,  T., and  Ten  Broeck,  C,  "A  Note  on  the  Relation  between 
B.  -pullorum  (Rettger)  and  the  Fowl  Typhoid  (Moore).  Jour.  Med. 
Research,  Vol.  31,  pp.  547-557,  1915. 


292 


Diseases  of  Poultry 


mannite  and  maltose.  Even  these  differences  appear  to  be 
lost  if  strains  of  B.  pullorum  are  used  which  have  been  cul- 
tivated in  the  laboratory  for  some  time.  These  studies, 
however,  are  not  extensive  enough  to  justify  as  yet  the 
assumption  that  the  two  organisms  are  identical. 

Diagnosis  of  White  Diarrhea. — The  symptoms  of  white 
diarrhea  are  in  general  the  same  for  the  different  forms  of 
the  disease.  They  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows :  The 
affected  chicks  appear  stupid  and  remain  under  the  hover  or 
hen  much  of  the  time.  They  isolate  themselves  from  the 
rest  of  the  flock  and  appear  indifferent  to  what  goes  on 


*.  ^  ^ 


Fig.  63.  —  Ten  day  White  Leghorn  chicks  showing  symptoms  of  bacillary 
white  diarrhea.     (After  Rettger  and  Stoneburn.) 

about  them.  Their  feathers  become  rough  and  the  wings 
droop  (cf.  Fig.  63).  There  is  progressive  loss  of  weight. 
The  birds  eat  little  or  nothing  and  appear  unable  to  pick 
up  their  food.  Their  actions  in  this  direction  are  chiefly 
mechanical.  The  characteristic  whitish  discharge  from  the 
vent  very  soon  makes  its  appearance.  The  discharged  mat- 
ter may  be  creamy  or  sometimes  mixed  with  brown.  The 
discharged  matter  is  more  or  less  sticky  or  glairy.  In  many 
cases  it  clings  to  the  down  in  sufficient  quantity  to  plug  up 
the  vent.  This  condition  is  known  as  "pasting  up  behind." 
This  latter  condition,  however,  is  not  necessarily  indicative 
of  white  diarrhea. 


White  Diarrhea 


293 


Many  of  the  chicks  chirp  or  peep  constantly  or  will  utter 
a  shrill  cry  apparently  of  pain,  when  attempting  to  void  the 
excreta.  These  sounds  are  often  characteristic  of  the 
disease. 

In  many  cases  the  chicks  present  the  appearance  of  being 
"short  backed"  or  "big  bellied."  Woods  ^  describes  this  as 
follows : 

"The  weakling  is  almost  always  big-bellied,  the  abdomen 
protruding  to  the  rear  so  that  it  bunches  out  behind,  well  out 
of  line  with  the  vent,  with  the  result  that  the  chick  looks  as  if 


Fig.  64 


Normal   ten  day   White   Loj^hor 
Stoneburn.) 


(After   Rettgcr 


the  tail  piece  and  backbone  has  been  pushed  forward  and  in 
just  above  the  vent  "  (cf.  Fig.  63). 

In  some  cases  the  chicks  die  with  but  little  warning  and 
show  few  of  the  above  symptoms.  In  other  cases  the  sick 
chick  will  last  a  long  time  showing  all  the  symptoms  men- 
tioned. 

Post-mortem  examination  often  reveals  but  few  lesions. 
One  of  the  most  striking  things  is  the  loss  of  flesh  if  the  dis- 
ease has  lasted  for  some  time.  The  alimentary  canal  is 
usually  nearly  empty  except  for  some  slimy  fluid.     The 

1  Woods,  P.  T.,  "Reliable  Poultry  Remedies."     Quincy,  111. 


294  Diseases  of  Poultry 

organs  are  all  very  pale.  The  liver  may  have  a  few  streaks 
showing  congested  areas.  Some  of  the  unabsorbed  yolk 
may  or  may  not  be  present.  There  is  considerable  variation 
in  its  appearance.  It  is  not  usually  putrid  unless  the  chick 
has  been  dead  for  some  time. 

The  following  post-mortem  appearances  in  bacillary 
white  diarrhea  are  reported  by  Rettger  and  Stoneburn :  ^ 

"  Crops  —  Empty  or  partially  filled  with  slimy  fluid  or 
with  food. 

"Lungs  —  Apparently  normal.  (Tubercles  not  ob- 
served.) 

"Liver  —  Pale,  with  streaks  and  patches  of  red.  These 
apparently  slightly  congested  areas  are  usually  large  in  size. 

"Kidney  and  Spleen  —  Apparently  normal. 

"  Intestines  —  Pale,  and  for  the  greater  part  empty.  A 
small  amount  of  dark  grayish  or  brownish  matter  frequently 
present. 

"  Ceca  —  With  few  exceptions  but  partially  filled  with  a 
grayish  soft  material.  Only  occasionally  cheesy  or  firm 
contents. 

"  Unabsorbed  Yolk  —  Usually  present  varying  in  size 
from  a  pea  to  a  full-sized  yolk.  The  color  may.  vary  from 
yellow  to  brownish  green  or  nearly  black.  In  consistency 
there  is  also  much  variation.  It  may  appear  perfectly 
normal,  distinctly  gelatinous,  or  watery.  Frequently  it  is 
observed  in  the  character  of  custard  and  again  more  or  less 
dry  and  firm.  Unless  the  chick  has  been  dead  for  some 
time  the  yolk  is  usually  not  found  putrid,  but  merely  stale. 

"The  chick  as  a  whole  appears  more  or  less  anaemic  and 
emaciated.  The  muscles  of  the  wangs,  breast  and  legs  may 
be  almost  completely  wasted  away." 

1  Rettger,  L.  F.,  and  Stoneburn,  F.  H.,  "Bacillary  Wliite  Diarrhea 
of  Young  Chicks."  Conn.  (Storrs)  Agric.  Exper.  Stat.  BuU.  60, 
pp.  33-57.     1909. 


White  Diarrhea  295 

The  chief  difference  l)etween  this  and  coccidiosis  appears 
to  be  in  the  contents  of  the  ceca  (cf.  p.  286). 

Undoubtedly  the  most  specific  method  of  diagnosing 
white  diarrhea  is  by  bacteriological  examination,  llettger 
and  Stoneburn  ^  have  perfected  methods  for  the  examination 
of  eggs,  dead  chicks  and  the  ovaries  of  laying  hens.  By 
these  methods  it  is  possible  for  a  bacteriologist  to  determine 
whether  the  chicks  or  the  laying  stock  are  infected  with 
Bacterium  pullorum.  Such  examination  cannot  be  made  by 
the  poultryman.  In  some  states  the  Experiment  Station 
will  undertake  such  examinations.  In  others  it  will  be 
necessary  to  depend  upon  private  laboratories.  The  fol- 
lowing bacteriological  description  of  Bacterium  pullorum  is 
taken  from  Rettger,  Kirkpatrick  and  Jones.^  It  is  inserted 
here  for  the  convenience  of  bacteriologists  who  may  wish  to 
study  this  disease. 

Description  and  General  Characteristics  of  Bacterium 
Pullorum 

Morphology,  Staining  Properties,  etc. — The  organism  is 
a  long,  slender  bacillus  (().4-0.5/i.  X  2-4/*)  with  slightly 
rounded  ends.  It  usually  occurs  single,  chains  of  more  than 
two  bacilli  being  rarely  found.  It  is  a  non-motile,  non- 
liquefying,  non-chromogenic,  facultative  anaerobe.  In  its 
microscopic  appearance  it  resembles  the  bacillus  of  typhoid 
fever.  It  is  stained  readily  by  the  ordinary  basic  aniline 
dyes.  It  does  not  stain  by  the  Gram  method  ;  neither  does 
it  retain  its  color  when  treated  with  dilute  acetic  and  mineral 
acids.  The  organism  does  not  produce  spores,  or  at  least 
they  have  never  been  observed. 

1  hoc.  cit.    1911. 

2  Rettger,  L.  F.,  Kirkpatrick,  W.  L.,  and  Jones,  R.  E.,  "Baeillary 
White  Diarrhea  of  Young  Chicks."  Conn.  (Storrs)  Agr.  Expt. 
Stat.  Bui.  77,  pp.  263-309,  1914. 


296  Diseases  of  Poultry 

The  thermal  death  point  (moist)  is  56  to  57°  C.  for  an 
exposure  of  fifteen  minutes.  The  optimum  temperature  is 
35  to  37°  C. 

Cultural  Characters.  Agar  plates.  —  Small  white  colonies 
make  their  appearance  within  twenty-four  hours.  They 
increase  in  size  slowly  and  seldom  attain  more  than  one 
millimeter  in  diameter,  even  after  three  or  four  days'  in- 
cubation. Under  the  microscope  they  appear  yellow  and 
vary  in  form,  being  oval,  spindle-shaped  or  round.  The 
surface  is  usually  marked  with  one  or  two  rosette  figures. 

Slant  Agar.  —  The  ordinary  streak  growth  is  quite  visible 
in  twenty-four  hours,  and  resembles  that  of  the  typhoid 
bacillus.  It  spreads  little  and  remains  delicate  even  after 
prolonged  incubation.  When,  however,  the  entire  surface 
of  the  agar  is  streaked,  with  a  platinum  loop,  the  charac- 
teristic cultural  appearance  of  the  common  pus  streptococcus 
is  obtained.  The  growth  is  not  continuous  and  compact, 
but  consists  of  minute,  delicate  colonies,  which  may  be  so 
small  as  to  require  a  magnifying  lens  for  detection.  This 
cultural  characteristic  is  of  extreme  importance  in  identifi- 
cation work. 

Gelatin  Plates.  —  Small  white  colonies  may  be  seen  in 
forty-eight  hours.  They  remain  small  for  several  days, 
and  only  under  exceptional  conditions  do  they  develop  into 
characteristic  surface  colonies  which  to  a  certain  extent 
resemble  the  grape-leaf  colony  of  B.  typhosus. 

Gelatin  Stab.  —  A  delicate  growth  occurs  in  forty-eight 
hours  along  the  whole  line  of  inoculation.  In  litmus  milk 
little  or  no  apparent  change  occurs  within  the  first  forty- 
eight  hours,  after  which  the  milk  becomes  slightly  acidified 
without  any  signs  of  coagulation  of  the  casein. 

Gas  Production  in  Sugar  Bouillon.  —  Negative  results  were 
obtained  with  maltose,  lactose,  saccharose,  inulin,  and 
dextrin   bouillon.     Dextrose   and   mannite   were   attacked, 


White  Diarrhea  297 

however,  with  both  acid  and  gas  production.  In  the  dextrose 
fermentation  tubes  about  20  per  cent  of  the  closed  arm 
is  filled  with  gas,  and  the  mannite  tubes  average  about  the 
same.  The  gas  consists  of  CO2  and  H  in  the  ratio  of  1 :  3. 
Some  of  the  strains  do  not  produce  gas  in  any  of  the  sugar 
media,  though  acid  production  is  quite  apparent. 

l7idol  and  Nitrate  Production.  —  Neither  indol  nor  nitrate 
could  be  detected  in  Dunham's  peptone  solution  at  the  end 
of  one  week's  growth  in  the  incubator. 

Quite  recently  still  another  method  for  the  diagnosis  of 
this  disease  has  been  proposed.  Jones  ^  points  out  that  the 
bacteriological  examination  of  eggs  is  an  unsatisfactory 
method  of  detecting  fowls  that  are  harboring  this  germ  in  the 
ovary.  This  arises  from  the  fact  that  with  such  an  infected 
hen  only  occasional  eggs  may  contain  this  organism.  Yet 
such  a  hen  is  a  source  of  danger  to  the  flock.  Jones  then 
suggested  the  use  of  the  agglutination  test.  This  test  con- 
sists in  adding  a  very  small  quantity  of  the  blood  serum  of  a 
suspected  fowl  to  a  dilute  (milky)  suspension  of  the  bacteria. 
If  the  fowl  has  the  disease  the  bacteria  will  clump  together 
and  settle  to  the  bottom  of  the  test  tube  so  that  the  liquid 
above  will  appear  clear.  If  the  bird  is  not  affected  the 
bacteria  will  not  clump  together  and  the  suspension  will 
retain  its  milky  appearance. 

This  test  has  now  been  used  by  Jones,  Gage  ^  and  Rettger, 
Kirkpatrick  and  Jones. ^  In  all  of  these  studies  it  has  proved 
to  be  an  important  aid  in  the  recognition  of  this  infection  in 
laying  hens. 

1  Jones,  F.  S.,  "The  Value  of  the  Macroscopic  Agglutination 
Test  in  Detecting  Fowls  that  are  Harboring  Bacterium  pullorum." 
Jour.  Med.  Res.,  Vol.  27,  pp.  481-49.5,  1913. 

2  Gage,  G.  E.,  "On  the  Diagnosis  of  Infection  with  Bacterium 
pullorum  in  the  Domestic  Fowl."  Mass.  Agr.  Expt.  Stat.  Bui.  148, 
pp.  1-20,  1914. 

»  Loc.  cit.     1914. 


298  Dlseafies  of  Poultry 

This  like  the  bacteriological  test  cannot  be  made  by  the 
poultryman.  It  must  be  done  in  a  well  equipped  laboratory 
and  under  the  direction  of  a  competent  bacteriologist.  The 
practicability  of  the  test  depends  upon  the  value  of  the 
fowls. 

Treatment.  —  The  treatment  of  white  diarrhea  like  that 
of  most  other  poultry  diseases  consists  in  prevention  rather 
than  cure.  Proper  care  of  the  breeding  birds,  proper  incu- 
bation and  proper  care  and  feeding  of  the  chicks  will  do 
much  to  prevent  the  ravages  of  this  disease.  A  chick  that 
lacks  constitutional  vigor,  or  that  is  weak  from  improper 
incubation  or  improper  brooding  falls  an  easy  prey  to  an 
infectious  organism.  On  the  other  hand,  a  healthy  vigorous 
chick  will  resist  the  attacks  of  such  an  organism  for  some 
time. 

However,  care  in  housing  and  raising  the  chicks  is  not 
sufficient  to  prevent  this  disease  in  a  badly  infected  flock. 
Undoubtedly,  in  the  light  of  the  researches  reviewed  .in  the 
preceding  pages,  the  best  point  to  attack  this  disease  is  the 
laying  hen.  Recent  work  has  shown  that  these  infected 
hens  can  best  be  identified  by  the  agglutination  test.  Where 
it  is  possible  to  apply  this  test,  all  reacting  birds  should  be 
removed  from  the  breeding  pens  and  not  allowed  to  come  in 
contact  with  the  healthy  birds.  Such  a  method  accom- 
panied by  care  and  cleanliness  in  raising  the  chicks  will 
practically  eradicate  the  disease. 

There  are  many  poultry  plants,  however,  where  it  is 
impossible  or  impracticable  to  apply  this  test.  Under  such 
circumstances  there  is  no  certain  way  of  identifying  the 
bacillus  carriers  in  the  breeding  pens.  The  following 
method  will  greatly  aid  in  reducing  the  mortality  from  this 
disease  although  it  will  not  eradicate  it  completely. 

In  the  first  place  every  incubator  and  brooder  should  be 
thoroughly  disinfected  before  using  and  between  each  hatch. 


White  Diarrhea  299 

This  can  easily  be  done  by  spraying  with  cresol  soap  (see  p. 
17)  or  some  other  good  disinfectant.  This  will  insure  that 
no  germs  remain  from  the  preceding  hatch.  Next  some 
kind  of  wire  trays  or  baskets  should  be  provided  which  hold 
from  12  to  15  eggs  each.  These  should  be  made  with  a  cover 
and  of  such  shape  that  they  will  conveniently  fit  into  an 
incubator  tray.  On  the  eighteenth  day  the  eggs  should  be 
placed  in  these  trays  and  the  lids  carefully  fastened.  The 
ideal  method  is  to  have  the  eggs  from  each  hen  in  a  separate 
tray  but  where  trap  nesting  and  pedigree  breeding  are  not 
carried  out  this  is  impracticable.  The  chicks  should  be 
allowed  to  hatch  in  these  trays  and  to  remain  in  them  until 
they  are  48  hours  old.  By  this  time  they  have  passed  the 
most  critical  stage  and  they  may  then  be  put  together  in  the 
brooder.  By  thus  isolating  the  chichs  in  small  groups  only 
a  few  of  these  groups  will  usually  prove  to  be  infected.  It 
has  already  been  pointed  out  that  one  infected  chick  will 
spread  the  disease  to  an  entire  incubator  or  brooder  if  al- 
lowed free  range  among  its  neighbors  at  the  critical  period. 
This  method  has  been  used  with  marked  success  on  a  number 
of  large  poultry  plants. 

During  the  last  few  years  there  have  appeared  many 
articles  in  the  poultry  press  regarding  the  use  of  sour  milk 
as  a  cure  or  preventive  of  white  diarrhea.  The  Storrs 
Experiment  Station  has  carried  out  careful  experiments  in 
this  connection  extending  over  several  years.  Their  results 
are  summed  up  in  a  recent  bulletin,^ 

"Sour  milk  feeding  has  a  most  beneficial  influence  on  the 
growth  of  chicks  and  in  lessening  mortality  from  all  causes. 
As  an  important  agent  in  the  prevention  and  suppression 
of  white  diarrhea  its  value  is  somewhat  doubtful,  and  fur- 
ther investigation  is  necessary  before  unqualified  statements 

1  Rettger,  Kirkpatrick  and  Jones,  loc.  cit.,  1914. 


300  DiscaMs  of  Poultry 

can  be  made.  Milk  which  is  soured  by  the  Bulgaricus 
bacillus  of  IMetchnikofF  possesses  no  distinct  advantages 
over  naturally  soured  milk ;  on  the  other  hand,  it  has  several 
disadvantages.  Its  method  of  preparation  involves  consider- 
able time  and  care,  and  it  is  not  relished  by  chicks  to  the 
same  extent  as  naturally  soured  milk." 

Other  remedies  have  been  proposed  for  this  disease  but 
most  of  them  appear  to  have  but  little  value.  Kaupp  ^ 
recommends  a  sulphocarbolate  treatment  as  follows :  To 
each  gallon  of  drinking  water  he  dissolves  one  30-grain 
tablet  sulphocarbolate  compound  of  zinc,  sodium  and 
calcium,  6  grains  of  bichloride  of  mercury  and  3  grains  of 
citric  acid.  With  this  mixture  he  reports  good  results. 
Horton  ^  at  the  Oregon  Experiment  Station  used  this 
treatment  on  50  infected  chicks  of  which  only  seven  sur- 
vived. He  says :  "  From  the  manner  in  which  the 
chicks  died  off  and  from  the  general  appearance  of  the 
seven  that  remained  alive  it  seems  evident  that  sulphocar- 
bolates  in  the  treatment  of  white  diarrhea  (bacillary  form) 
have  very  little  if  any  efficiency." 

1  Kaupp,  B.  F.,  "Some  Poultry  Diseases."  Colo.  Agr.  Expt. 
Stat.  Bui.  185,  1912. 

2  Horton,  G.  D.,  "  Sulphoearbolates  in  the  Treatment  of  White 
Diarrhea  (baeillary  form)  of  Young  Chicks."  Atner.  Vet.  Rev., 
Vol.  46,  pp.  321-322,  1914. 


CHAPTER   XIX 

Other  Diseases  of  Chickens 
Leg   Weakness 

The  term  "leg  weakness"  is  sometimes  used  by  poultry- 
men  to  indicate  the  lameness  due  to  rheumatism  in  adult 
birds.  Regarding  this  form  of  the  disease  see  page  201 .  The 
more  usual  use  of  the  term  "leg  weakness"  is  to  denote  a 
disease  or  ailment  which  is  found  in  growing  chicks  from  one 
month  to  six  months  of  age.  It  is  said  to  be  more  common 
among  cockerels  than  pullets  and  is  more  frequent  in  the 
heavier  than  the  lighter  breeds.  The  chief  cause  of  the 
trouble  seems  to  be  that  in  birds  growing  rapidly  and  fed 
heavily  the  weight  sometimes  increases  faster  than  the 
strength.  This  results  in  a  weak  kneed,  wobbling  bird. 
The  disease  is  sometimes  ascribed  to  other  causes  such  as 
overcrowding,  close,  unventilated  quarters,  overheating, 
etc.  Salmon  says,  "  It  may  develop  in  young  chickens  kept 
in  brooders  in  which  the  heat  is  not  properly  distributed  or 
where  there  is  too  much  bottom  heat,  also  in  those  which 
are  kept  constantly  upon  wooden  floors."  Regarding  these 
cases  Robinson  says,  "  Where  such  conditions  are  present  the 
leg  weakness  is  more  likely  to  be  an  accompaniment  of 
diseases  which  plainly  show  other  symptoms." 

Diagnosis.  —  The  symptoms  are  indicated  in  the  name  of 

the  disease.     It  first  appears  as  an  unsteadiness  in  the  walk. 

This  may  gradually  become  worse  until  the  bird  is  unable  to 

stand  alone  and  is  constantly  tumbling  over.     The  birds  are 

301 


302  Disrafirfi  of  Poult rj/ 

found  sitting  wliile  eating  and  are  inclined  to  walk  wry  little. 
When  the  trouble  first  appears  there  is  little  else  wrong  with 
the  bird.  The  eye  and  comb  are  bright  and  healthy,  the 
appetite  is  good.  Later,  however,  the  bird  being  weaker 
than  the  others  gets  less  grain  and  becomes  thin,  feathers  out 
poorly  and  is  a  distressed  object.  It  is  said  that  rheumatism 
can  be  distinguished  from  leg  weakness  by  the  swelling  of  the 
joints  in  the  former  disease. 

Treatment.  —  This  consists  chiefly,  of  course,  in  removing 
the  cause.  Since  the  most  common  cause  is  the  overfeeding 
with  fat  producing  foods,  the  amount  of  these  should  be 
reduced.  The  weak  birds  should  be  remo\'ed  to  a  pen  by 
themselves.  Substitute  bran,  wheat  and  oatmeal  for  the 
corn  and  cornmeal.  Give  skim  milk,  if  possible,  instead  of 
w^ater.  Feed  plenty  of  green  food.  This  is  one  of  the  most 
important  measures.  Sanborn  recommends  rubbing  the 
legs  with  tincture  of  arnica  and  adding  §  teaspoonful  of 
tincture  of  nux  vomica  to  each  quart  of  drinking  water. 

Aspergilloftis  or   Pneumonuico.^is 

This  disease,  which  is  discussed  on  page  173,  not  only  occurs 
in  hens  but  it  is  also  a  very  common  and  fatal  disease  in 
young  chicks.  It  often  occurs  with  white  diarrhea  and  the 
double  disease  was  for  a  long  time  considered  as  one.  Poul- 
trymen  designated  the  cases  in  which  the  lesions  occurred  in 
the  lungs  as  "lungers."  Investigation  has  shown  that  there 
are  two  diseases  which  may  occur  separately  or  together. 

Diagnosis.  —  This  disease  is  characterized  by  a  dumpish 
sleepy  condition  of  the  chick.  The  wings  are  pendulant. 
Breathing  is  rapid  and  sometimes  accompanied  by  snoring 
sounds.  A  whitish  diarrhea  is  present.  A  differential 
diagnosis  between  this  and  the  coccidial  white  diarrhea  is  only 
possible  by  an  examination  of  the  dead  birds.     In  asper- 


Other  Diseases  of  Chickens  303 

gillosis,  yellowish  tubercles  which  closely  resemble  those  of 
tuberculosis  occur  in  the  lungs  and  in  the  walls  of  the  air 
sacs  and  often  also  in  the  intestines,  mesentery,  liver  and 
other  organs.  In  very  acute  cases  the  lungs  are  simply 
inflamed,  death  occurring  before  the  formation  of  the 
tubercles.  The  mycelium  and  spores  of  the  fungus  may  be 
found  by  microscopic  examination  of  the  tubercles  and  this 
fungus  may  be  obtained  by  inoculating  cultures  from  these 
tubercles. 

Etiulogy.  —  The  disease  is  caused  by  the  spores  of  an 
Aspergillus,  usually  A.  fumigatus,  Fig.  32.  This  is  a  very 
common  fungus  and  the  spores  are  widely  distributed  in 
nature.  The  spores  are  often  found  on  the  food  or  on  the 
litter  and  are  inhaled  or  taken  in  with  the  food.  Incubator 
chickens  are  often  infected  from  the  incubators  and  brooders 
and  hen  hatched  chickens  from  the  straw  or  chaff  in  the  nests. 
Sometimes  the  chicks  get  the  disease  from  chick  food  not 
properly  cared  for.  It  is  possible  that  this  disease  as  well  as 
the  coccidial  and  bacillary  white  diarrhea  is  sometimes 
carried  in  the  egg.  The  spores  and  mycelium  are  often  found 
in  the  digestive  tract  of  hens  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  they 
may  work  up  the  oviduct  from  the  cloaca  and  infect  an  egg 
before  it  gets  its  shell. 

Treatment.  —  The  treatment  of  diseased  chicks  is  useless. 
When  they  are  infected  the  spores  develop  on  the  mem- 
branes and  new  spores  are  formed  which  spread  the  infection 
throughout  the  respiratory  system  and  also  to  the  other 
organs.  The  only  effective  treatment  is  prevention.  Keep- 
ing the  flock  under  good  hygienic  conditions  with  clean  food, 
litter  and  nesting  material  reduces  the  chance  of  infection 
and  keeps  the  chicks  in  a  vigorous  condition  in  which  they 
are  able  to  resist  the  disease.  The  dead  chicks  should  be 
burned  or  buried. 

Prognosis.  —  The  disease  is  fatal  so  far  as  known. 


304  Diseases  of  Poultry 

Emphysema 

This  name  is  applied  to  a  disease  of  young  chicks  in  which 
the  skin  puffs  out  in  the  sides  of  the  neck  near  its  juncture 
with  the  body.  The  size  of  the  puff  varies  somewhat. 
In  mild  cases  it  is  about  the  size  of  a  hickory  nut.  Some- 
times there  is  one  puff,  sometimes  several. 

According  to  Vale  the  trouble  generally  occurs  in  growing 
chicks  which  have  been  confined  in  close  quarters.  It  is 
often  associated  with  some  lung  trouble.  It  seems  to  be 
due  to  obstruction  of  the  air  passages  and  the  rupture  of 
some  of  the  air  sacs.  The  air  thus  escapes  into  the  tissues 
beneath  the  skin.  While  not  common  this  disease  does 
occur  in  Maine.  Some  cases  were  reported  to  the  Station 
while  this  work  was  in  preparation. 

The  treatment  suggested  by  Vale  is  to  puncture  the  skin 
with  a  needle  and  to  give  2  grains  nitrate  of  iron  to  each 
wine  glassful  of  drinking  water. 

Gapes 

Gapes  is  a  disease  which  attacks  domestic  poultry  and 
many  species  of  wild  birds.  In  fowls  it  is  more  frequently 
observed  in  young  chicks.  It  occurs  also  in  adult  fowls  but 
rarely  causes  enough  inconvenience  to  attract  attention. 
The  disease  is  due  to  the  presence  of  minute  parasitic  worms 
in  the  air  passages. 

Diagnosis.  —  The  characteristic  symptoms  of  this  trouble 
are  frequent  gaping,  sneezing,  coughing  with  discharge  of 
mucus.  The  affected  birds  appear  weak  and  dumpish  with 
drooping  wings.  When  badly  affected  the  bird  stands  or 
sits  with  its  eyes  closed,  wings  drooped,  mouth  open  and  at 
frequent  intervals  gasps  as  if  suffocating. 

The  correctness  of  a  diagnosis  for  gapes  should  be  tested  by 


Other  Diseases  of  Chickens 


305 


Fig.  65.  —  Trachea  (windpipe)  of  a 
pheasant  showing  gape  worms 
(Syngamus  trachealis)  attached  to 
the  mucous  membrane.  (After 
Megnin.) 


Fig.  66.  —  A  pair 
of  Sy7igamus 
trachealis,  at- 
tached. (After 
Megnin.) 


determining  whether  or  not  the  worms  are  present  in  the 
trachea.  When  chicks  are  dying  from  a  disease  supposed  to 
be  gapes  the  trachea  of  a  dead  bird  may  be  examined.     If  the 


306  Diseases  of  Poultry 

trouble  is  gapes  the  worms  will  be  found  attached  in  pairs  to 
the  mucous  membrane  of  the  trachea. 

The  two  sexes  are  joined  together  in  such  a  way  that  a  pair 
looks  like  a  double  headed  worm.  The  female  is  about  | 
inch  long  and  the  male  about  5  inch.  The  worms  are 
pale  in  color  when  empty  but  when  they  have  been  feeding 
they  are  red  with  the  blood  of  the  chick.  The  presence  of  the 
worms  in  the  trachea  of  a  living  chick  may  be  demonstrated 
by  passing  a  gape  worm  extractor  (a  loop  of  horse  hair  or 
fine  wire  or  a  feather  with  the  vane  removed  except  at  the 
tip)  carefully  down  the  trachea  for  some  distance  turning  it 
around  to  loosen  the  worms  and  drawing  it  out.  If  the 
worms  are  present  some  will  be  removed  with  the  ex- 
tractor. 

The  presence  of  the  worms  causes  an  irritation  and  inflam- 
mation of  the  membrane  and  stimulates  the  secretion  of 
mucus.  Some  of  the  accumulation  of  worms  and  mucus  is 
expelled  by  coughing.  Sometimes  part  of  it  is  swallowed 
and  expelled  with  the  feces.  The  loosened  material  may  be 
drawn  into  the  deeper  air  passages  during  inspiration. 
Death  may  occur  from  suffocation  due  to  the  obstruction  of 
the  air  passages  with  worms  and  mucus,  or  weak  individuals 
may  die  from  loss  of  blood. 

Etiology.  —  The  only  cause  of  the  disease  is  the  nematode 
or  thread  worm  Syngamus  trachealis  Siebold,  called  the  gape 
worm,  red  worm,  or  forked  worm  (see  Figs.  65  to  67). 
These  parasites  obtain  their  nourishment  by  sucking  the 
blood  from  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  trachea.  They  are 
attached  in  pairs  to  the  membrane  by  their  sucker-like 
mouths.  Besides  bringing  about  a  considerable  loss  of  blood 
the  worms  cause  irritation  and  inflammation  of  the  membrane 
and  a  copious  secretion  of  mucus.  The  two  sexes  are  so 
closely  attached  to  each  other  that  they  cannot  be  separated 
with  tearing.     The  body  of  an  adult  female  is  swollen  with 


Other  Diseases  of  Chickens 


307 


'-^ 


Fig.  67.  —  A  pair  of   Syngamus  trachealis.      A,  male. 
B,  female.     (After  Mcgnin.) 


308  Diseases  of  Poultry 

thousands  of  eggs  and  occasional!}^  contains  some  embryos. 
The  eggs  are  not  laid  but  escape  when  the  body  of  the  female 
is  ruptured.  This  may  take  place  with  the  decomposition 
of  the  worm  or  the  body  may  be  torn  by  the  coughing  of  the 
bird.  The  eggs  may  develop  and  grow  to  adult  worms  within 
the  trachea  of  the  same  bird.  The  worms,  eggs  and  embryos 
are  often  coughed  up.  Sometimes  they  are  swallowed  and 
then  some  of  the  eggs  and  embryos  may  be  passed  with  the 
feces.  The  worms  coughed  up  are  eagerly  eaten  by  the 
same  or  other  birds  and  the  ova  and  embryos  are  often  taken 
with  contaminated  food  and  drink.  Developing  embryos 
have  been  found  in  earth  worms  living  in  infected  poultry 
yards,  and  these  will  cause  gapes  if  fed  to  chicks. 

The  eggs  and  embryos  need  only  warmth  and  moisture  to 
develop.  Eggs  may  develop  in  the  digestive  organs.  It  is 
not  known  how  the  embryos  reach  the  trachea  from  the 
digestive  organs.  A  large  number  of  those  eaten  never  reach 
the  trachea  but  are  either  digested  or  voided  with  the  feces. 
Salmon  says :  "  Although  there  are  some  thousands  of  eggs 
in  the  adult  worms,  10  to  15  worms  have  been  fed  to  a  single 
chicken,  and,  as  a  result,  not  over  4  or  5  embryos  would 
reach  and  develop  in  the  trachea."  According  to  Theobald, 
Ehler  found  copulated  worms  where  several  of  the  females 
were  full  of  eggs  10  days  after  feeding  ova  to  healthy  chicks. 
Wet  clay  soils  are  especially  favorable  to  the  gape  worms, 
and  they  thrive  best  in  warm,  wet  weather. 

Treatment.  —  In  eradicating  the  disease  it  is  important  to 
isolate  all  affected  birds  so  that  the  worms  and  ova  coughed 
up  or  voided  with  the  excrement  may  not  be  eaten  by  the 
other  chicks  or  contaminate  the  food,  drink,  and  the  ground 
of  the  runs.  Burn  the  bodies  or  at  least  the  heads  and  necks 
of  all  dead  birds.  The  feed  troughs  and  water  dishes  should 
be  scalded  and  the  houses  and  coops  disinfected.  Use 
potassium  permanganate  in  the  drinking  water.     If  possible 


Other  Diseases  of  Chickens  ■      309 

provide  fresh  runs  on  which  there  has  been  no  poultry  for 
several  years. 

The  following  methods  have  been  recommended  for  dis- 
infecting the  ground.  It  is  doubtful  if  these  are  economically 
advisable. 

Treating  the  ground  with  air  slaked  lime  and  spading. 

Sprinkling  with  one  of  the  following  solutions : 

1  per  cent  or  2  per  cent  sulphuric  acid. 

2  ounces  of  copperas  dissolved  in  a  pail  of  water. 

I  ounce  of  crystals  of  potassium  permanganate  to  a  bar- 
rel of  water. 

The  lime  or  acid  treatments  are  most  often  recommended. 
The  infected  birds  should  be  kept  in  houses  easily  cleaned 
and  disinfected  and  this  should  be  done  frequently  to  prevent 
reinfection  of  the  recovering  birds.  Theobald  advises  an 
addition  of  3  drams  of  salicylate  of  soda  to  each  quart  of 
drinking  water  to  destroy  eggs  and  embryos  that  may  con- 
taminate it. 

The  individual  surgical  method  may  be  profitably  practiced 
in  some  cases.  It  seems  to  be  the  only  sure  method  yet  ad- 
vised of  ridding  an  infested  bird  of  the  parasites.  Wright  ^ 
gives  the  following  description  of  the  method : 

"The  old-fashioned  cure  was  to  strip  a  small  quill- 
feather,  all  but  a  small  tuft  at  the  point,  and  (moistening  it 
in  turpentine  or  not)  introduce  it  into  the  trachea,  turn  it 
round,  and  withdraw  it  with  the  worms.  This  is  effectual, 
but  requires  care  to  prevent  lacerating  the  windpipe  or 
causing  suffocation.  In  this  way  30  worms  have  been  suc- 
cessfully extracted  from  one  chicken.  A  very  much  better 
method  is  to  take  two  straight  hairs  from  a  horse's  tail,  laid 
together,  tie  a  knot  on  the  end  of  the  pair,  and  cut  off  the 
ends  close  to  the  knot.  This  is  passed  straight  {i.e.,  without 
twisting)  down  the  windpipe  as  far  as  it  will  go  without 

1  Wright,  L.,  "The  New  Book  of  Poultry."     London,  1905. 


310  Diseases  of  Puultry 

bending,  then  twisted  between  the  finger  and  thumb  and 
drawn  out.  A  trial  or  two  may  miss,  but  usually  5  or  6 
attempts  will  bring  up  4  or  5  worms,  and  the  hairs  inserted 
in  this  way,  without  twisting,  do  not  seem  to  hurt  the  chicks, 
and  are  used  with  the  greatest  facility.  The  bringing  up  of 
even  from  4  to  10  worms,  and  the  failure  of  more  to  come 
after  a  blank  trial  or  two,  may  usually  be  reckoned  as  a 
cure." 

Wire  gape  worm  extractors  may  be  bought  from  dealers  in 
poultry  supplies,  or  one  can  make  one  for  himself  by  taking 
No.  30  wire,  forming  a  loop  at  one  end  just  big  enough  to  go 
easily  down  the  trachea,  and  then  twisting  together  the  ends 
of  the  wire  to  form  a  long  handle.  Worms  removed  should 
be  burned. 

It  is  reported  (Jour.  Bd.  of  Agric,  London,  Vol.  13,  p.  368, 
1906)  that  gapes  may  be  successfully  treated  by  the  fumes  of 
carbolic  acid.  The  method  given  is  to  place  the  chicks  in  a 
basket  over  a  pail  containing  carbolic  acid.  A  hot  brick  is 
placed  in  the  pail  for  the  purpose  of  volatilizing  the  acid. 

Prognosis.  —  This  disease  is  often  fatal  in  young  chicks 
from  one  to  four  weeks  old,  especially  in  small,  weak  birds. 
In  young  chicks  and  in  most  adult  fowls  it  often  causes  little 
inconvenience.  These  fowls,  however,  are  constant  sources 
of  infection.  The  removal  of  the  worms  from  the  trachea 
if  skillfully  done  so  that  the  delicate  membrane  is  not  injured 
usually  effects  a  cure  but  this  individual  treatment  requires 
considerable  time  and  the  value  of  the  chicks  must  determine 
whether  or  not  it  is  economically  profitable. 

Crooked  Breast  Bone 

The  normal  breast  bone  of  a  fowl  is  shaped  like  a  boat  with 
a  deep  keel.  This  keel  is  a  thin  plate  of  bone  which  furnishes 
a  place  for  the  attachment  of  the  large  flying  muscles.     In  a 


Other  Diseases  of  Chickens  311 

fully  mature  bird  the  breast  bone  is  completely  ossified  but 
at  hatching  it  is  almost  entirely  cartilaginous. 

Normally  the  keel  of  the  bone  is  straight  and  perpendicular 
to  the  basal  portion  of  the  bone.  In  many  individuals, 
however,  it  is  bent  to  one  side  or  first  to  one  side  and  then 
the  other  forming  an  S-^shaped  curve.  Also  it  may  be  in- 
clined at  the  base  at  an  abnormal  angle. 

Poultr\Tiien  usually  attribute  these  abnormalities  to  the 
fact  that  the  birds  go  to  roost  too  young.  They  believe  that 
they  are  caused  by  the  pressure  of  the  hard  roost  on  the  soft 
bone.  About  fifty  years  ago  Rottiger  ^  called  attention  to 
the  fact  that  crooked  breast  bones  occur  in  chicks  showing 
retarded  growth  before  they  have  ever  roosted  and  also  in 
wild  birds  kept  in  captivity  and  prevented  from  early  roost- 
ing. He  also  found  these  malformations  associated  with 
diseased  conditions,  especially  catarrh.  He  believed  that 
they  were  due  not  to  external  pressure  but  to  a  lack  of  bone 
forming  elements  in  the  diet  or  to  a  derangement  of  the 
digestive  apparatus  which  prevented  the  proper  assimilation 
of  these  elements. 

Our  own  experience  is  in  accord  with  this  view.  Crooked 
breast  bones  often  occur  in  cases  of  malnutrition  or  disease 
without  reference  to  whether  the  birds  have  or  have  not 
roosted.  In  utility  stock  the  crooking  of  the  bone  in  itself 
may  not  be  of  great  importance,  though  it  lowers  the  sale 
value  of  a  bird  greatly.  Some  good  layers  have  crooked 
breast  bones.  However,  w^hen  large  numbers  having  this 
malformation  occur  in  the  flock  there  is  something  wrong 
w4th  the  feeding  or  care  of  the  chicks  and  such  mistakes 
should  be  looked  into  and  corrected. 

1  Rottiger,  The  Poultry  World,  Vol.  5,  p.  298.  (Translated 
from  Ztschr.  f.  Gegliigel  u.  Singvogelzucht  by  W.  G.  Todd),  1876. 


CHAPTER   XX 

Tumors 

New  tissue  growths  or  neoplasms  (tumors)  are  by  no 
means  uncommon  in  domestic  fowls.  It  has  been  the  routine 
practice  at  the  Maine  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for 
several  years  to  autopsy  all  birds  that  are  killed  for  material 
or  data  and  all  birds  that  die  from  natural  causes.  The 
archives  of  the  laboratory  now  contain  about  nine  hundred 
autopsy  records  sufficiently  complete  to  determine  whether 
or  not  the  birds  had  tumors  and  in  what  organs  the  tumors 
were  located.  These  records  show  that  8.98  per  cent  of  all 
the  birds  autopsied  had  tumors.  That  is,  there  were  about 
90  cases  of  tumors  per  thousand  birds.  The  genital  organs, 
at  least  in  the  females,^  were  most  often  affected.  In  fact 
37  per  cent  of  all  the  tumors  found  were  in  the  ovary  and 
19  per  cent  in  the  oviduct.  Twenty-two  per  cent  were  found 
in  the  peritoneum  (some  of  these  were  attached  to  the  walls 
of  the  abdominal  cavity  and  some  were  in  the  mesenteries). 
Tumors  have  also  been  found  in  the  intestine  walls,  kidney, 
gizzard,  liver,  spleen,  pancreas,  heart  and  breast  bone. 

Some  of  these  tumors  occurred  in  fowls  killed  for  dissection 
or  data  and  in  apparently  normal  health.  The  tumors  were 
the  probable  cause  of  death  in  less  than  half  the  cases  of 
birds  with  tumors  which  died  from  natural  causes. 

The  tumor  was  usually  confined  to  one  organ,  but  there 

1  Very  few  males  were  autopsied.     One  of  the  three  tumors  found 
in  males  was  located  in  one  of  the  testes. 
312 


Tuin.ors  313 

were  fifteen  cases  in  which  tumors  of  similar  nature  occurred 
in  two  or  more  organs.  In  these  cases  the  tumor  had  prob- 
ably undergone  metastasis. 

The  age  of  the  bird  is  also  related  to  frequency  of  the 
occurrence  of  tumors.  Tumors  being  much  more  frequent 
in  old  than  in  young  birds.  Only  7.37  per  cent  of  the  birds 
under  two  and  one-fourth  years  of  age  had  tumors,  while 
19.17  per  cent  of  those  older  than  this  were  affected. 

A  further  proof  of  the  common  occurrence  of  new  tissue 
growths  in  fowls  is  the  fact  that  in  the  course  of  ten  months 
Rous,  Murphy,  and  Tytler  ^  obtained  without  difficulty 
about  thirty  spontaneous  tumors  in  living  fowls. 

Fowl  tumors  are  apparently  in  every  way  analogous  to 
tumors  in  human  beings.  They  are  masses  of  new  tissue 
(neoplasms)  which  persist  and  grow  independently  of  the 
surrounding  structures.  These  growths  are  of  no  pliysiolog- 
ical  use  to  the  host  but  they  are  often  harmless.  Tumors 
may  be  classified  as  malignant  or  benign.  Benign  tumors  do 
not  penetrate  into  the  surrounding  tissues  but  push  them 
aside.  They  are  usually  encapsuled.  On  the  other  hand 
there  are  a  number  of  tumors  which  are  malignant  and  tend 
to  infiltrate  the  tissues.  Many  of  these  produce  growth  in 
adjacent  organs  and  even  in  distantly  removed  parts  of  the 
body.  Usually  they  affect  the  general  health  and  when 
removed  tend  to  recur. 

On  examining  four  thousand  hens  brought  to  a  hotel, 
Ehrenreich  ^  found  seven  malignant  tumors.  All  of  these 
were  found  in  one  thousand  hens  more  than  one  year  old. 

»  Rous,  P.,  Murphy,  J.  B.,  and  Tytler,  W.H.,  "A  Filterable  Agent 
the  Cause  of  a  Second  Chicken  Tumor,  an  Osteochondrosarcoma." 
Jour.  Amer.  Med.  Assoc,  Vol.  59,  pp.  1793-1799,  1912. 

^  Ehrenreich,  M.,  and  Miehaelis,  L.,  "Ueber  Tumoren  bei  Hiih- 
nern."     Zeitschr.  f.  Krehsforch,  p.  586,  1906. 

Ehrenreich,  M.,  "Weitere  Mitteilungen  iiber  das  Vorkommen 
malignes  Tumoren  bei  Hiihnern."    Med.  Klin.,  Berhn,  III,  614, 1907. 


314  Diseases  of  Poultry 

In  the  three  thousand  hens  under  one  year  old  no  maHgnant 
tumors  were  found. 

There  are  many  theories  regarding  the  origin  of  tumors. 
One  which  has  been  quite  generally  accepted  being  that 
unused  embryonic  cells  may  remain  collected  in  certain  spots 
and  that  they  may  later  be  sufficiently  stimulated  to  grow 
independently.  In  accord  with  this  theory  is  the  fact  that 
the  histological  structure  of  a  tumor  resembles  one  or  another 
of  the  general  classes  of  body  tissues,  and  in  fact  usually 
copies  more  or  less  closely  the  structure  of  the  organ  in  which 
the  primary  tumor  arises.  However,  when  growths  arise 
secondarily  in  other  organs,  that  is,  when  the  tumor  has 
undergone  metastasis,  the  secondary  tumors  are  similar 
in  structure  to  the  primary  tumor.  Further  Rous  and  his 
colleagues  ^  have  found  several  distinct  chicken  tumors 
which  may  be  produced  in  healthy  fowls  by  the  injection  of  a 
cell  free  filtered  extract  of  the  tumor.  In  the  case  of  each  of 
these  tumors  the  neoplasm  produced  in  the  inoculated  fowl 
always  resembles  the  tumor  from  which  the  extract  was  made. 
That  is,  the  type  of  tumor  is  determined  by  the  individuality 
of  the  causal  agent  and  not  alone  by  the  potentialities  of  the 
stimulated  cells.  That  is,  the  cells  are  not  simply  stimulated 
to  grow,  but  they  are  stimulated  to  grow  in  a  specific 
way. 

According  to  the  general  type  of  body  tissue  they  resemble, 
tumors  may  be  classified  as  follows : 

1  Rous,  P.,  "A  Transmissible  Avian  Neoplasm  (Sarcoma  of  the 
common  fowl)."     Jour,  of  Exper.  Med.,  Vol.  XII,  pp.  696-705. 

Rous,  P.,  Murphy,  J.  B.,  and  Tytler,  H.  W.,  loc.  cit. 

Rous,  P.,  and  Lange,  Linda  B.,  "The  Characters  of  a  Third  Trans- 
plantable Chicken  Tumor  Due  to  a  Filterable  Cause.  A  Sarcoma 
of  IntracanaUeular  Pattern."  Jour.  Exper.  Med.,  Vol.  XVIII,  pp. 
651-664,  1913. 

Rous,  P.,  and  Murphy,  J.  B.,  "On  the  Causation  by  Filterable 
Agents  of  Three  Distinct  Chicken  Tumors. ' '  Jour.  Exper.  Med. ,  Vol. 
XIX,  pp.  52-68,  1914. 


Tumors  315 

I.  Connective  tissue  type. 

II.  Epithelial  tissue  type. 

III.  Muscle  tissue  type. 

IV.  Nervous  tissue  type. 

Each  of  these  groups  may  be  subdivided  according  to  the 
more  specific  resemblance  of  the  histology  of  the  tumors  to  a 
particular  kind  of  body  tissue.  At  least  six  different  types 
of  the  first  group  have  been  described  in  the  domestic  fowl. 

I.   Tumors  of  the  connective  tissue  type. 

1.  Sarcoma  (made  up  of  embryonic  connective  tissue 
composed  of  closely  packed  cells  embedded  in  a  fibrillar  or 
homogeneous  substance) . 

2.  Myxoma  (mucous  tissue,  a  soft  translucent  growth,  made 
up  of  variously  shaped  cells  of  connective  tissue  and  capillary 
blood  vessels  incased  in  a  jelly-like  matrix. 

3.  Fibroma  (composed  mainly  of  fibrous  or  fully  developed 
connective  tissue).     The  tumors  of  this  group  are  benign. 

4.  Chondroma  (a  cartilaginous  growth). 

5.  Osteoma  (bony  tissue  usually  but  not  always  develop- 
ing on  bone). 

6.  Lymphoma  (made  up  of  lymphoid  tissue). 
According  to  Tyzzer  and  Ordway  ^  tumors  of  the  sixth 

group  (lymphomata)  occur  more  frequently  than  any  other 
type.  They  suggest  that  this  is  probably  due  to  two  facts. 
(1)  This  type  of  tumor  apparently  develops  in  younger  birds 
than  other  types,  and  (2)  birds  kept  for  egg  production  are 
usually  killed  at  the  end  of  their  first  year.  They  have 
described  in  detail  seven  different  tumors  of  this  group.  In 
summing  up  their  results  they  say :  "  In  some  cases  lymph- 
oma occurs  as  a  local  primary  growth  either  with  or  without 
metastasis.  In  other  cases  the  tumor  tissue  is  so  uniformly 
disseminated  throughout  certain  organs  that  it  is  impossible 

^Tyzzer,  E.  E.,  and  Ordway,  T.  "Tumors  in  the  Common 
Fowl."     Jour.  Med.  Research,  Vol.  21,  pp.  459-477,  1909. 


316 


Diseases  of  Poultry 


to  determine  the  point  of  origin.  Certain  lymphomata  are 
more  or  less  alveolar  in  structure ;  others  grow  diffusely 
through  the  tissues.  The  tumor  may  be  confined  to  the 
fixed  tissues  so  that  it  is  essentially  extravascular,  or  the 
tumor  cells  may  also  occur  in  the  circulatory  blood  constitut- 
ing a  lymphatic  leukemia." 

Probably  the  second  most  frequent  type  of  connective 


Sarcoma  Chicken  Tumor  No.  I,  Second  Generation.    (After 
Rous.) 


tissue  tumor  is  sarcoma.  This  may  occur  as  simple  sarcoma 
or  it  may  occur  in  combination  with  one  or  more  of  the  other 
types.  That  is,  it  is  a  generalized  and  simple  tissue  which 
may  represent  the  complete  adult  stage  of  a  tumor,  as  Rous 
Chicken  Tumor  No.  I,  and  Chicken  Tumor  No.  XVIII. 
However,  since  it  is  a  simple  generalized  tissue,  it  may  also 
represent  an  early  stage  in  the  development  of  one  of  the 
other  forms  of  connective  tissue  tumors.  In  these  cases  it 
remains  as  a  matrix  in  which  the  further  developed  tissues 


Fig.  69.  —  Chicken  tumor  XVIII  in  the  gizzard  of 
the  original  fowl.  Three  metastases  are  visible  in 
the  skeletal  muscles,  namely  one  in  the  neck,  another 
in  the  thoracic  wall  above  the  right  lobe  of  the  liver 
and  the  third  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  pelvis.  All 
are  indicated  by  arrows.     (After  Rous  and  Lauge.) 


318  Diseases  of  Poultry 

are    embedded.     Tyzzer    and  Ordway  ^    have    described    a 
myxosarcoma  in  which  masses  of  mucus  were  embedded  in  a 


Fig.  70.  —  Large  osteo-chondrosarcoma  produced  by  intramuscular  in- 
jection of  4  cc.  of  the  Berkfeld  filtrate  of  an  extract  of  chicken  tumor  VII. 
The  fowl  was  killed  when  comatose  eighty-seven  days  after  the  injection. 
Its  emaciation  should  be  noted.     (After  Rous  and  Murphy.) 

connective  tissue  matrix  and  Rous,  Murphy,  and  Tytler  ^ 
found  a  transmissible  Osteo-chondrosarcoma. 

1  Loc.  cit.  .        2  i,Qc.  cit. 


Tumors 


319 


When  the  filtered  extracts  of  this  tumor  were  injected  into 
susceptible  individuals  a  rapid  growth  of  cartilage  forming 
connective  tissue  elements  took  place.  These  growths  soon 
became  cartilaginous  and  finally  bony. 

The  connective  tissue  tumors  (especially  the  sarcomas) 


Fig.  71.  —  The  growth  shown  in  the  preceding  jjhotograph  after  it  had 
been  sawed  open.  Scattered  amid  the  smooth  whitish  cartilage  is  much 
bone  with  red  marrow.     (After  Rous  and  Murphy.) 


are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  mammals,  and  a  large  number  of 
the  avian  tumors  which  have  been  described  belong  to  this 
group.     These  tumors  are  sometimes  benign  but  are  often 


320  Diseases  of  Poultry 

very  malignant  and  appear  in  many  organs  of  the  body  and 
frequently  cause  emaciation  and  death.  All  three  of  the 
chicken  tumors  which  Rous  and  his  colleagues  have  found 
capable  of  transference  to  other  individuals  belong  to  this 
group.  Tumors  of  this  group  are  usually  covered  with  a 
hard,  tough,  fibrous  tissue. 

The  next  group  of  tumors  are  those  of  the  epithelial  type. 
As  in  the  preceding  group,  these  tumors  are  further  classified 
according  to  the  particular  type  of  body  tissue  they  resemble. 
Two  types  of  these  epithelial  tumors  have  been  described  in 
the  domestic  fowl. 

1.  Adenoma  (tumors  with  a  gland-like  structure). 

2.  Carcinoma  (cancer  —  epithelial  cells  developing  in 
epithelial  tissue). 

Pickens  ^  has  described  an  adenoma  of  the  bile  ducts  in  the 
domestic  fowl  (Fig.  72).  This  tumor  was  evidently  of  a 
highly  malignant  type  as  it  had  been  transferred  from  the 
liver  to  the  proventriculus,  gizzard,  spleen,  intestines  and 
peritoneum.  The  growths  were  small  lobulated  masses, 
the  larger  ones  contained  small  cysts  (sacs  filled  with  serous 
liquid).  The  abdominal  cavity  contained  about  a  pint  of 
this  liquid. 

Pick  ^  and  Koch  ^  have  each  described  a  carcinoma  found 
in  the  mouth  of  a  fowl  and  Ehrenreich  "*  considered  that  five  of 
the  seven  malignant  tumors  he  studied  were  carcinomata. 
Three  types  of  carcinoma  have  been  described :  squamous 
celled,  alveolar  and  granular  cancer.  Tumors  of  this  class 
are  malignant. 

1  Pickens,  E.  M.,  "A  Cysto-adenoma  in  a  Fowl."  Rept.  of 
New  York  State  Veterinary  College,  pp.  261-268,  1913-1914. 

2  Pick,  L.,  "  Zur  Frage  von  Vorkommen  des  Carcinoins  bei  Vogein  : 
Grossen  Plattenepithelkrebs  des  Mundhohlenbodens  dei  einem 
Hiihn."     Berliner  klin.  Wochenschr.,  29,  669,  1903. 

'Koch,  M.,  " Gesehwiilste  bei  Tieren."  Verhandl.  der  deutsch. 
Gesellsch.  f.  Path.,  136,  1904  ^  Loc.  cit. 


Tumors  321 

Tumors  of  the  third  group  are  formed  of  muscle-hke  tissue. 
In  some  mammahan  tumors  (rhabelomyoma)  the  muscle 
cells  are  striated.  In  others  (leiomyoma)  they  are  un- 
striated.  So  far  as  we  know  no  tumors  of  the  first  group 
have  been  described  in  fowls,  but  Tyzzer  and  Ordway  ^  have 
described  a  tumor  in  the  mesentery  of  a  domestic  fowl  which 
was  composed  of  typical  smooth  muscle  fibers. 

At  present  we  know  of  no  description  of  tumors  of  the 
fourth  or  nervous  tissue  group  in  the  domestic  fowl.  Such 
tumors,  however,  very  likely  exist. 

We  have  seen  that  there  are  many  different  kinds  of  new 
tissue  growths  or  neoplasms  in  the  domestic  fowl.  Some  of 
these  are  benign  and  some  malignant.  We  are  entirely 
ignorant  of  the  cause  of  these  growths  when  they  spontane- 
ously occur  in  fowls.  Only  three  out  of  thirty  different 
tumors  tested  by  Rous,  Murphy  and  Tytler  ^  can  be  repro- 
duced in  another  individual.  None  of  these  tumors  has  been 
transmitted  to  healthy  fowls  kept  with  those  which  have 
developed  it.  The  work  of  Rous  and  others  has,  however, 
shown  that  particular  neoplasms  have  specific  causative 
agents  w^hich  in  some  cases  can  be  separated  from  the  neo- 
plasm. In  the  cases  studied  this  was  apparently  a  living 
virus,  although  if  organisms  are  present  they  are  ultramicro- 
scopic  and  able  to  pass  through  a  Berkfeld  filter  impermeable 
to  Bacillus  jiuorescens  liquefaciens. 

The  work  of  Rous  has  shown  that  many  birds  possess  a 
perfect  natural  immunity  to  these  tumors  and  that  in  general 
young,  vigorous  birds  are  most  susceptible.  Funk  ^  has  shown 
that  birds  stunted  by  a  deficient  diet  are  less  susceptible  than 

*  Loc.  cit. 

*  Loc.  cit. 

'Funk,  Casimir.,  "  Studies  on  Growth :  The  Influence  of  Diet 
on  Growth,  Normal  and  Malignant."  Veterinary  Journal,  Vol.  21, 
N.  S.,  pp.  126-132,  1914.     (Reprinted  from  Lancet.) 

Y 


322 


Diseases  of  Poult r if 


normally  developed  birds  and  that  the  growth  of  the  tumor 
(Rous  sarcoma)  is  slower  in  the  underdeveloped  birds. 

It  is  a  well  known  fact  in  human  pathology  that  physiolog- 
ical activity  stimulates  the  growth  of  some  tumors,  while 
physiological  decline  stimulates  others.  This  is  undoubtedly 
true  also  of  fowl  tumors. 

Non-malignant  tumors  located  on  external  parts  may  be 


Cysto-adenoma  on  the  serosa  of  the  intestine.      (Alt 


removed  or  they  may  be  left  alone.  They  will  not  ordinarily 
aflfect  the  health  of  the  bird.  Even  malignant  tumors  are 
apparently  not  contagious. 

The  ultimate  nature  of  the  causative  agents  has  not  been 
determined.  With  our  present  knowledge  it  is  impossible  to 
explain  either  the  spontaneous  origin  of  these  agents  within 
an  individual  or  to  account  for  their  transfer  from  one  individ- 


Tumors  323 

ual  to  another  under  natural  conditions.  However,  the 
above  work  on  avian  neoplasm  together  with  similar  work 
on  the  smaller  mammals  gives  us  some  ground  to  hope  that 
the  cause,  methods  of  prevention  and  cure  for  tumor  and 
cancer  in  animals  and  man  may  soon  be  discovered. 


CHAPTER   XXI 

Poultry  Surgery 

It  is  proposed  to  consider  in  this  chapter  only  those 
common  pathological  conditions  of  poultry  which  demand 
surgical  treatment  for  their  cure.  At  the  outstart  it  should 
be  said  that  poultry  bear  and  recover  from  surgical  operations 
very  well.  The  common  practice  of  caponizing,  usually 
done  without  any  aseptic  precaution  whatever  and  with  small 
losses  from  infection,  is  sufficient  evidence  of  this.  Probably 
no  mammal  would  bear  opening  the  abdominal  cavity  (which 
is  done  in  every  caponizing  operation)  with  such  entire  and 
nearly  uniform  freedom  from  ill  effects  as  attends  this  opera- 
tion with  poultry.  The  reason  why  poultry  make  such 
excellent  surgical  subjects  lies  in  their  marked  resistance  to 
all  pyogenic  (pus  producing)  germs. 

The   Treatment  of  Cuts,    Tears  and  All  Open  Wounds 

Very  severe  wounds  may  be  successfully  treated  by  adher- 
ing to  the  following  procedure  : 

1.  Thoroughly  wash  the  hands  in  warm  water,  using 
plenty  of  soap,  before  handling  the  wounds  at  all.  After 
the  hands  have  been  well  scrubbed,  rinse  them  thoroughly  in 
a  pan  of  1  to  1000  bichloride  of  mercury  solution  (p.  54)  and 
dry  with  a  clean  towel. 

2.  Pull  out  the  feathers  in  the  region  around  the  wound, 
and  thoroughly  cleanse  it,  using  first  warm  water,  and  follow 
this  with  warm  1  to  1000  bichloride  solution.    A  piece  of  clean 

324 


Poultry  Surgery  325 

soft  cloth  may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  or  absorbent  cotton. 
Make  sure  that  the  wound  is  thoroughly  clean.  Do  not  be 
afraid  of  hurting  the  bird.  A  little  pain  at  the  start  is  pref- 
erable to  a  dead  bird  later. 

3.  If  necessary  sew  up  the  wound,  using  a  good  sized  sew- 
ing needle  and  silk.  Both  needle  and  silk  should  be  soaked 
in  alcohol  for  15  minutes  before  using.  Small  wounds  need 
not  be  sewed.  Large  ones  will  heal  much  quicker  and  more 
certainly  if  they  are  sewed.  If  the  wound  involves  the  mus- 
cles as  well  as  the  skin  sew  it  up  in  two  layers ;  one  set  of 
stitches  including  only  the  muscles,  the  other  set  only  the  skin. 

4.  Paint  the  skin  in  the  region  about  the  wound,  but  not  the 
wound  itself  with  dilute  tincture  of  iodine. 

5.  Powder  the  wound  well  with  iodoform. 

6.  Smear  a  thick  layer  of  the  ointment  already  recom- 
mended (p.  55)  over  all. 

7.  If  the  wound  is  very  severe  bandage  it  with  a  clean  cloth. 
The  above  treatment  is  only  necessary  in  its  entirety  in 

very  severe  cases.  Depending  upon  the  gravity  of  the  con- 
dition the  following  items  in  the  treatment  may  be  omitted 
in  the  order  named  : 

7  may  be  omitted  except  in  most  serious  cases. 

7  and  3  may  be  omitted  in  less  severe  cases. 

7,  3  and  4  may  be  omitted  in  still  less  severe  cases. 

7,  3,  4,  and  1  may  be  omitted  in  still  less  severe  cases. 

In  case  of  slight  wounds  which  appear  still  to  demand  some 
treatment  6  and  2  or  even  6  alone  will  suflBce.  , 

Abscess 

Should  an  abscess  appear  lance  it  with  a  clean  sharp  knife, 
making  sure  to  cut  to  the  bottom.  Squeeze  out  the  pus  and 
core  if  there  is  one,  and  then  proceed  to  heal  it  by  following 
the  treatment  above  outlined  for  wounds  in  general. 


326  Diseases  of  Poultry 

Bumblefoot 

This  is  an  abscess  of  the  foot  which  may  result  from  a 
variety  of  causes,  e.g.,  too  high  roosts,  too  narrow  roosts, 
undiscovered  wounds  caused  by  stepping  on  nails,  splinters 
of  glass,  etc.  It  is  usually  not  discovered  until  the  bird 
becomes  lame. 

The  best  treatment  to  follow  is  first  to  tie  a  cord  tightly 
about  the  leg  above  the  foot  to  control  the  flow  of  blood ; 
then  with  a  clean,  narrow  bladed,  sharp  knife  open  up  the 
abscess  thoroughly.  Go  clear  to  the  bottom  and  dig  out 
the  core.  Then  follow  in  detail,  omitting  nothing  e.rcept  S,  the 
treatment  given  above  for  wounds.  Two  days  after  the 
first  treatment  take  off  the  bandages  and  repeat  the  treat- 
ment, going  through  in  order  steps,  1,  2,  4,  5,  6,  and  7.  In 
some  cases  a  third  treatment  after  a  lapse  of  2  or  3  days  may 
be  necessary,  but  usually  not  if  the  first  treatment  is  thorough. 

Of  course  the  bird  under  treatment  should  be  isolated  and 
kept  in  a  small  pen  with  soft  litter  on  the  floor. 

Broken  Bones 

If  a  bird  is  sufficiently  valuable  to  warrant  the  trouble  it  is 
possible  to  set  fractures  of  the  long  bones  of  legs  and  wings, 
and  get  successful  union.  A  splint  should  be  made  for  Ithe 
affected  part  and  carefully  and  thoroughly  bound  into  place. 
Healing  is  rapid,  and  it  should  be  possible  to  remove  the 
splints  in  three  weeks  from  the  time  they  are  put  on  if  not 
before.  In  our  experience  firm  union  has  occurred  in  less 
time  than  this. 

Frozen  Combs  and  Wattles 

In  northern  parts  of  the  country  frozen  wattles  and  combs, 
especially  in  male  birds,  are  very  common  occurrences.     The 


Poultry  Surgery  327 

trouble  is  more  apt  to  be  with  the  wattles  than  the  comb, 
because  the  former  dip  into  the  drinking  water  and  then 
freeze  at  times  when  if  dry  they  would  not  do  so. 

The  following  brief  but  adequate  directions  for  treating 
frozen  combs  and  wattles  are  taken  from  Farm  Poultry,  Vol. 
15,  p.  41  :  "  First  thaw  the  wattles  or  combs  out  by  manipulat- 
ing with  the  fingers  well  smeared  with  vaseline.  Keep  the 
bird  in  a  cool  (not  cold)  place,  and  anoint  the  frozen  parts 
with  a  mixture  of  vaseline,  5  tablespoonfuls ;  glycerin, 
2  tablespoonfuls ;  turpentine,  one  tablespoonful,  once  or 
twice  a  day.  If  he  is  not  very  badly  frosted  it  probably  will 
make  no  difference  with  his  breeding  a  few  months  from  now 
—  provided  he  is  not  again  injured  the  same  way." 

Anaesthetizing  Poultry 

The  difficulty  which  we  have  found  to  be  inherent  in  anaes- 
thetizing the  domestic  fowl  may  be  stated  briefly  in  this  way  : 
If  any  anaesthetic  is  pushed  to  the  point  at  which  the  bird  is  in 
satisfactory  condition  for  operative  procedure  in  about  9 
cases  out  of  10  the  bird  will  die  on  the  table  from  the  effects 
of  the  anaesthesia  before  the  operation,  if  extensive,  can  be 
completed.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  anaesthetic  is  given  less 
freely  the  bird  does  not  lose  its  reflex  excitability.  Every 
time  a  cut  is  made  or  a  nerve  is  pinched  wuth  the  forceps  the 
bird  will  struggle.  Our  experience  in  anaesthetizing  birds, 
which  has  now  covered  a  large  number  of  individuals,  leads 
us  to  believe  that  the  only  middle  ground  between  these  two 
extremes  is  afforded  by  those  cases  (unfortunately  too  few) 
in  w^hich  the  individual  idiosyncrasy  of  the  bird  toward  ether 
makes  it  take  the  anaesthetic  well. 

While  we  have  made  no  detailed  physiologic  study  as  to  the 
fundamental  reasons  underlying  this  difficulty  respecting 
anaesthesia  which  has  been  described,  it  seems  reasonably 


328  Diseases  of  Poultry 

apparent  what  these  reasons  are.  Connected  with  the 
respiratory  organs  proper  of  a  bird  are  the  relatively  enor- 
mous air  sacs.  During  anaesthesia  the  ether  or  chloroform 
vapor  gets  into  these  air  sacs  either  by  diffusion  or  directly 
as  a  result  of  respiratory  movements.  There  is  reason  to 
believe  that  the  vapor,  once  in  the  air  sacs,  stays  there  until 
it  is  absorbed  by  the  tissues ;  in  other  words,  it  appears  to  be 
the  case  that  the  great  bulk  of  an  inhaled  anaesthetic  in  the 
case  of  birds  must  be  eliminated  from  the  body  by  way  of  the 
urinary  organs  rather  than  the  respiratory  organs.  Assum- 
•ing  this  to  be  the  case  there  is  no  difficulty  in  seeing  why 
forcing  an  anaesthetic  in  a  bird  leads  to  disastrous  results. 
The  relatively  enormous  area  for  absorption  afforded  by  the 
air  sacs  insures  that  a  correspondingly  large  amount  of  the 
anaesthetic  will  be  taken  up  very  quickly.  This  almost  imme- 
diately affects  the  vagus  center,  with  the  consequent  cardiac 
inhibition,  respiratory  failure  and  death. 

The  exact  method  of  procedure  which  we  now  follow  in 
anaesthetizing  birds  is  as  follows :  Immediately  before  be- 
ginning the  administration  of  the  anaesthetic  a  1-200  grain 
atropin  sulphate  tablet  is  dissolved  in  1  c.c.  of  warm  normal 
saline  solution.  The  salt  solution  with  the  dissolved  atropin 
is  then  injected  subcutaneously  in  the  axilla.  Ether  is  used 
as  the  anaesthetic.  It  is  administered  from  a  small  improvised 
mask  which  admits  of  the  condition  of  the  comb  being  seen 
during  the  operation.  Depending  on  how  hard  the  ether  is 
pushed,  the  bird  is  ready  for  operation  in  from  15  to  20 
minutes  after  the  anaesthesia  is  begun.  The  dosage  of  1-200 
grain  atropin  to  a  bird  may  seem  large,  but  we  have  never 
been  able  to  see  the  slightest  bad  effect  from  it,  provided  the 
administration  of  ether  wds  begun  immediately  after  the 
injection  of  the  atropin.^ 

^  The  foregoing  account  of  anaesthesia  is  taken  from  a  paper  by 
two  authors  (Pearl  and  Surface)  published  in  Jour.  Amer.  Med  Assoc, 
Vol.  52,  pp.  382-383,  1909. 

Library 


GLOSSARY   OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS 

Abdomen.  —  That  portion  of  the  body  which  contains  the  internal 

organs.     Belly. 
Agglutination.  — •  The  massing  together  of  bacteria  or  the  red  cor- 
puscles of  the  blood  when  subjected  to  certain  substances. 
Air  sac.  — ■  One  of  the  membranous  sacs  filled  with  air  in  different 

parts  of  the  body,  especially  in  the  abdominal  region.     They 

often  extend  into  the  cavities  of  the  bones  and  connect  with 

the  lungs. 
Albumen  portion  of  oviduct.  —  See  p.  248. 
Amoebiasis.  — ■  A  diseased  state  produced  by  amoebae. 
Anaemia.  —  A  condition  in  which    the  blood  is  deficient  either  in 

quality  or  quantity.     It  is  marked  by  paleness  and  loss  of 

energy. 
Anterior.  —  Situated  in  front  of  or  in  the  forward  part  of. 
Anus.  —  The  external  opening  of  the  intestine.     Vent. 
Apathetic.  —  Lacking  in  feeUng  or  ambition.     Indifferent. 
Arachnida.  — ■  A  class  of  invertebrate  animals  including  among  other 

groups  the  spiders,  scorpions  and  mites. 
Articular.  — ■  Pertaining  to  the  joints. 

Astringent.  —  Causing  contraction  and  arresting  discharges. 
Atony.  —  Lack  of  normal  tone  or  strength. 
Atrophy.  —  A  wasting  or  diminution  of  the  size  of  a  part. 
Auditory  meatus.  — ■  The  opening  into  the  ear. 
Autopsy.  —  The  post-mortem  examination  of  a  body. 
Avian.  —  Pertaining  to  birds. 

Axilla.  —  The  region  under  the  wing  where  the  latter  joins  the  body. 
Bile.  —  The  substance  secreted  by  the  Uver.     GaU. 
Bronchi.  —  The  tubes  which  lead  from  the  end  of  the  windpipe 

(trachea)  to  the  two  lungs  (cf.  Fig.  26). 
Carcinoma.  —  A  malignant  tumor  or  cancer. 
Catheter.  —  A   tubular   surgical   instrument   for   discharging   fluids 

from  a  cavity  of  the  body  or  for  distending  a  passage. 
Cecum  (pi.  ceca). — -A  blind  intestinal  pouch  of   which  there  are 

two  in  the  fowl. 
Cell.  —  The  smallest  element  of  an  organized  body  that  manifests 
329 

>'     '  ii.  ■ 


330  Glossary 

independent  vital  activities.  A  morphological  or  structiiral 
unit  of  an  organism. 

Chronic.  —  Long  continued  but  not  acute. 

Cleavage.  —  The  division  of  the  cells  of  an  embryo. 

Cloaca.  —  The  enlarged  portion  of  the  aUmentary  canal  just  before 
the  vent.  The  intestine,  the  ureters  (tubes  from  the  kidneys) 
and  the  oviduct  open  into  the  cloaca. 

Concrement.  —  A  lump  or  mass  formed  by  successive  additions. 

Congestion.  —  Excessive  or  abnormal  accumulation  of  blood  in  a 
part  or  organ. 

Conjunctiva.  —  The  delicate  membrane  that  lines  the  eyeUds  and 
covers  the  eyebaU  in  front. 

Contagious.  — ■  A  disease  which  is  communicable  by  direct  contact. 

Copulation.  —  Sexual  intercourse.     With  fowls  "treading." 

Cornea.  —  The  hard  transparent  structure  forming  the  anterior  part 
of  the  eyeball. 

Cranium.  —  The  brain  case. 

Creolin.  —  A  thick  black  Liquid  coal  tar  preparation.  It  has  anti- 
septic properties. 

Cresol.  —  A  coal  tar  product  with  antiseptic  and  germicidal  proper- 
ties. 

Cyst.  —  A  sac-like  growth  which  usually  contains  a  liquid  or  a  semi- 
solid. 

Demulcent.  —  A  soothing  mucilaginous  or  oily  medicine. 

Dermoid  cyst.  —  A  form  of  congenital  cyst  often  containing  skin- 
Uke  structures. 

Diuretic.  —  A  medicine  that  increases  the  activity  of  the  kidneys. 

Dorsal.  —  Pertaining  to  the  back. 

Ecchymoses  (ek-kim-o-ses).  —  Discoloration  of  the  skin  caused  by 
blood  outside  of  the  blood  vessels  as  in  a  bruise. 

Emaciated.  —  Very  lean  or  wasted  condition  of  the  body. 

Enema.  —  A  liquid  injection  in  the  rectum  or  cloaca. 

Enteritis.  —  Inflammation  of  the  intestine.  In  human  medicine 
confined  chiefly  to  the  small  intestine. 

Epidemic.  —  A  disease  that  is  widely  prevalent  in  a  community  or 
locality. 

Epidermis.  —  The  outer  or  non-vascular  layer  of  the  skin.  The 
cuticle. 

Epithelioma.  —  A  cancer  or  malignant  tumor  consisting  chiefly  of 
cells  derived  from  the  skin  or  mucous  membrane. 

Epithelium.  —  The  covering  or  outer  layer  of  the  skin  and  mucous 
membranes. 

Epizootic.  —  Occurring  as  an  epidemic  disease  among  animals. 

Ergot.  —  A  fungus  which  affects  and  finally  replaces  the  seed  of  a 


Glossary  '  331 

cereal  grass.  Used  chiefly  in  connection  with  the  ergot  of  rye, 
which  is  poisonous  to  poultry.  Ergot  as  a  drug  has  the  prop- 
erty of  causing  the  mammalian  uterus  to  contract. 

Etiology.  —  The  causation  of  any  disease. 

Excrement.  —  Fecal  matter ;  matter  cast  out  as  waste  from  the 
body. 

Exudate.  —  A  substance  thrown  out  of  the  body  or  deposited  in  a 
tissue  by  a  vital  process. 

Feces.  —  The  excrement  or  undigested  residue  of  the  food  discharged 
from  the  intestines.     Dung.     Droppings. 

Flagellate  micro-organism.  —  Any  minute  microscopic  organism 
which  swims  tlirough  the  water  by  means  of  the  lashing  of  one 
or  more  hair-Uke  structures  (flagella). 

Follicle.  — •  See  p.  246. 

Gall  bladder.  —  The  reservoir  for  the  bile  or  gall  secreted  by  the 
Uver.     It  is  readily  seen  on  the  upper  side  of  the  liver. 

Gallus  domesticus.  —  The  scientific  name  for  the  domestic  fowl. 

Gangrene.  — •  See  p.  271.     Gangrene  of  oviduct. 

Gastritis.  —  Inflammation  of  the  stomach. 

Hermaphrodite.  —  An  organism  which  has  both  male  and  female  re- 
productive organs. 

Hemorrhage.  —  Bleeding.     A    copious    escape    of    blood   from    the 


Hepatic.  —  Pertaining  to  the  liver. 

Hypern'mia.  —  Excess  of  blood  in  any  part  of  the  body. 

Hypertrophy.  —  The  morbid  enlargement  or  overgrowth  of  an  organ 
or  part. 

Immunity.  —  Security  against  any  particular  disease. 

Infection.  —  The  transmission  of  disease  from  one  animal  to  another, 
usually  through  some  intermediate  agent. 

Impaction.  —  The  condition  of  being  firmly  lodged  or  wedged. 

Incinerate.  — ■  To  burn  to  ashes.     Cremate. 

Incision.  —  A  cut. 

Infiltration.  —  The  accumulation  in  a  tissue  of  substances  not  nor- 
mally found  in  it. 

Inflammation.  —  A  morbid  condition  characterized  by  pain,  heat, 
redness,  and  swelling,  and  by  hyperaemia  and  various  exuda- 
tions. 

Inoculation.  —  The  insertion  of  a  virus  into  a  wound  or  abrasion  in 
the  skin  in  order  to  communicate  a  disease. 

Isthmus.  —  See  p.  248. 

Keratitis.  —  Inflammation  of  the  cornea  of  the  eye. 

Larva.  —  The  first  stage  in  development  after  leaving  the  egg. 
Used  in  connection  with  insects,  worms,  etc. 


332  Glossary 

Larynx.  —  A  muscular  and  cartilaginous  structure  situated  at  the 
base  of  the  tongue  and  connecting  with  the  windpipe  (trachea). 
It  is  the  organ  of  voice. 

Lesion.  —  Any  hurt,  wound  or  local  degeneration. 

Leucocytes.  —  White  blood  corpuscles. 

Lumen.  —  A  transverse  section  of  the  clear  space  within  a  tube. 

Lymphatic.  —  Pertaining  to  or  containing  lymph  which  is  a  trans- 
parent slightly  yellow  liquid  which  fills  the  lymphatic  vessels. 
It  corresponds  in  some  respects  to  the  serum  or  liquid  portion 
of  the  blood. 

Mammal.  —  Any  vertebrate  animal  which  suckles  its  young. 

Melanosis.  —  Pertaining  to  an  abnormal  deposit  of  pigment. 

Mesentery.  —  The  fold  of  peritoneum  attached  to  the  intestines. 

Metamorphosis.  —  In  insects  the  change  from  larval  to  adult  form 
as  from  caterpillar  to  butterfly. 

Micro-organism.  —  Any  minute  (microscopic)  animal  or  plant. 
Often  used  in  referring  to  bacteria  or  germs. 

Mite.  —  A  small  arthropod  somewhat  related  to  spiders  (cf. 
Fig.  40). 

Morphological.  —  Pertaining  to  the  forms  and  structures  of  or- 
ganized beings. 

Mucosa.  —  The  mucous  membrane. 

Mucous  membrane.  —  The  lining  of  the  internal  cavities  of  the  body. 

Mucus.  —  The  viscid  secretion  of  certain  (mucous)  glands. 

Mycelium.  —  The  thread-like  portion  of  a  fungus  (cf.  Fig.  53). 

Nacreous.  —  ResembUng  mother-of-pearl. 

Necrosis.  —  Death  of  a  tissue. 

Necrotic.  —  Pertaining  to  dead  or  decaying  tissue. 

Nictitating  membrane.  — •  The  third  or  lateral  eyehd  in  birds  and 
some  related  forms,  springing  from  the  inner  or  anterior  border 
of  the  eye  and  capable  of  being  drawn  across  the  eyeball. 

Nucleus  (pi.  nuclei).  — •  A  spherical  body  within  a  cell.  The  nucleus 
is  essential  to  the  Life  of  the  cell. 

(Esophagus.  —  That  portion  of  the  alimentary  canal  between  the 
mouth  (pharynx)  and  the  crop. 

Oral.  —  Pertaining  to  the  mouth. 

Ovary.  —  The  female  sexual  organ  in  which  the  eggs  develop. 

Oviduct.  —  The  tube  through  which  the  egg  passes  from  the  ovary 
to  the  cloaca. 

Ovum  (pi.  ova).  —  The  egg,  particularly  while  in  the  ovarj% 
(cf.  Fig.  60). 

Panophthalmia.  —  Inflammation  of  all  the  structures  or  tissue  of 
the  eye. 

Papilla.  —  A  small  nipple  shaped  elevation. 


Glossary  333 

Paralysis.  —  A  loss  of  motion  or  sensation  in  a  living  part  or  mem- 
ber. 

Pathology.  —  That  branch  of  medicine  which  treats  especially  of  the 
tissue  changes  caused  by  disease. 

Pectoral.  —  Pertaining  to  the  breast  or  chest. 

Pelvis.  — •  The  girdle  or  ring  of  bone  at  the  posterior  extremity  of 
the  trunk,  supporting  the  spinal  column  and  resting  upon  the 
legs. 

Pericardium.  —  The  membranous  sac  which  contains  the  heart. 

Peristalsis.  —  The  worm-like  movements  of  the  intestine  and  ovi- 
duct by  which  the  contents  of  these  tubes  are  propelled. 

Peritonitis.  — ■  Inflammation  of  the  peritoneum  or  the  membrane 
lining  the  abdominal  cavity. 

Pharynx.  — •  That  portion  of  the  aUmentary  canal  between  the  mouth 
and  the  oesophagus.  It  also  communicates  with  the  larynx 
and  nasal  passages  at  its  upper  end. 

Pleural.  —  Pertaining  to  the  serous  membrane  which  covers  the 
lungs. 

Posterior.  —  Situated  behind  or  towards  the  rear. 

Post-mortem.  —  Latin  for  after  death.     See  autopsy. 

Prognosis.  —  The  prospect  as  to  recovery  from  a  disease  or  a  forecast 
as  to  the  probable  result  of  an  attack  of  a  disease. 

Protoplasm.  —  A  viscid  granular  material  which  forms  the  essential 
constituent  of  the  living  cell.     Living  substance. 

Protozoa.  —  A  class  of  unicellular  animal  micro-organisms. 

Proventriculus.  —  That  portion  of  a  bird's  aUmentary  canal  lying  be- 
tween the  crop  and  the  gizzard.     Often  called  the  stomach. 

Punctiform  hemorrhages.  —  Presenting  the  appearance  as  if  punc- 
tured by  a  large  number  of  fine  prickle  or  needle  holes  from 
which  the  blood  oozes. 

Purgative.  —  Causing  evacuations  of  the  bowels. 

Pycemia.  —  Blood  poison  due  to  microbic  origin. 

Sarcoma.  —  A  kind  of  tumor  or  cancer  not  always  of  a  malignant 
nature. 

Scabies.  —  A  contagious  skin  disease  caused  by  a  mite. 

Sclerotic.  —  Pertaining  to  the  hard  white  fibrous  membrane  which 
with  cornea  forms  the  outermost  coats  of  the  eyeball. 

Serum.  —  The  clear  liquid  which  separates  from  the  clot  and  the 
corpuscles  in  the  clotting  of  blood. 

Spleen.  —  An  oval  shaped  organ  normally  about  one-half  inch  in 
diameter  and  of  a  dark  red  color.  It  lies  immediately  above 
the  liver  and  between  that  and  the  proventriculus. 

Spirochete.  —  A  protozoon  parasite  belonging  to  the  genus  Spiro- 
chceta. 


334  Glossary 

Spore.  —  The  reproductive  cell  of  many  protozoa  and  of  many 
lower  plants.  It  is  usually  inclosed  in  tough  membranes  and 
is  difficult  to  kill. 

Stigma.  —  See  p.  248. 

Subcutaneous.  —  Beneath  the  skin. 

Sub-mucosa.  — •  The  layer  of  tissue  situated  beneath  the  mucous 
membrane. 

Syncope  (sin-ko-pe).  —  Fainting.     Failure  of  the  heart's  action. 

Trachea.  —  The  wind-pipe. 

Traumatic.  —  Caused  by  an  injury. 

Therapeutic.  —  Pertaining  to  the  art  and  science  of  heahng. 

Thoracic.  —  Pertaining  to  the  chest. 

Urate.  —  A  salt  of  uric  acid.  A  product  of  the  secretion  of  the  kid- 
neys.    The  white  part  of  a  fowl's  droppings. 

Ureters.  —  The  tubes  leading  from  the  kidneys  to  the  cloaca. 

Uterus.  —  See  p.  248. 

Vagina.  —  That  portion  of  the  o\aduct  between  the  shell  gland  and 
the  cloaca. 

Ventral.  —  Pertaining  to,  or  situated  toward,  the  belly. 

Virulent.  —  Extremely  poisonous  or  dangerous. 

Virus.  —  Any  animal  poison,  especially  one  produced  by  and  ca- 
pable of  transmitting  a  disease. 

Viscera.  —  The  internal  organs  of  the  body. 


INDEX 


Abdomen,  baggy,  80;    liquid  in,  80; 

swollen,  79. 
Abdominal  dropsy,  80. 
Abnormal  eggs,  272. 
Abortion  of  eggs,  256. 
Abscess,  325. 
Acarina,  213. 
Achorion  schonleinii,  234. 
Aconite  root,  55. 
Adenoma,  320,  322. 
Agglutination   test   for    tuberculosis, 

127  ;    for  white  diarrhea,  297. 
Air,  19. 

Air-sac  mite,  180,  227. 
Air  sacs,  147. 
Ajowan  oil,  169. 

AUmentary  tract,  diseases  of,  57. 
Amoeba  meleagridis,  95. 
Anaemia,  120. 

Anaesthetizing  poultry,  327. 

Anatomy,  of  the  fowl,  41 ;  of  repro- 
ductive organs,  245  ;  of  respiratory 
organs,  147. 

Apoplectiform  septicaemia,  189. 

Apoplexy,  194. 

Apothecaries'  weights  and  measures, 
56. 

Argas  persicus,  192,  228. 

Arsenic  as  poison,  82. 

Articular  gout,  200. 

Ascaris  inflexa,  144. 

Ascites,  80. 

Aspergillosis,  101,  173;  in  chicks, 
302. 

Aspergillus  species,  175;  fumigatus, 
176,  285,  303. 

Atoxyl,  193. 

Atrophy  of  liver,  93  ;    ovary,  251. 

Autopsy,  46. 

Bacillary  white  diarrhea,  287. 
Bacillus  avisepticus,  103 ;  bipolaris  sep 


iicus,  103  ;    fluorescens  liquefaciens, 
321  ;      pullorum,     112,     285,     287, 
291,295;    suisepticus,  104:;    tuber- 
culosis,    116;        typhi    gallinarum 
alcalifaciens,  112;    typhosis,  111. 
Bacterium  sanguinarium,  11. 
Baldness,  233. 
Balfour,  191. 
Bang,  B.,  131. 
Bang,  Oluf,  118. 
Banks,  206,  207. 
"Bed-bug"  of  poultry,  230. 
Beeck,  82. 
Beri-beri,  197. 
Berke,  146. 
von  Betegh,  156,  160. 
Bichloride  of  mercury,  54,  324. 
Blackhead,  94. 
Blood,  diseases  of,  185. 
Blood  vessels,  rupture  of,  184. 
Bloody  diarrhea,  68,  83,  91,  138. 
Bloody  spots  in  eggs,  278. 
Body  mange,  226. 
BolUnger,  183. 
I  Bones,  broken,  326. 
Boracic  acid,  152. 
Bordet  et  Fally,  160. 
Borrel,  160. 

Bradshaw,  52,  142. 

Brain,  congestion  of,  195;  hemor- 
rhage of,  194;  post-mortem  ap- 
pearance of,  194. 

Breaking  of  egg  in  oviduct,  271. 

Breast  bone,  crooked,  310. 

Breeding  for  health  and  vigor,  3. 

Broken  bones,  326. 

Bronchi,  147. 

Bronchitis,  153. 

Brown,  27. 

Bruet,  240. 

Bumblefoot,  326. 

Burckhardt,  186. 


335 


336 


Index 


Calomel,  52. 

Cancers,  101. 

Canker,  164,  166,  172. 

Carbolic  acid  for  cholera,  109 ;    for 

catarrh,  152. 
Carcinoma,  320. 
Carcinomatosis,  101. 
Carnwath,  156. 
Cary,  155,  240,  243. 
Castor  oil,  53, 
Catarrh,   simple,   151 ;    severe,    153  ; 

contagious,  156. 
Catechu,  52. 
Cayenne,  52. 
Ceca,    post-mortem    appearance    of, 

97,  98,  294. 
Cephalogonimus  pellucidus,  145. 
Cercomoniasis,  100. 
Cerebral  hypersemia,  195. 
Chelosperura  hamulosa,  143. 
Chicken  pox,  155,  237. 
Chickens,  diseases  of,  301. 
Chilomastix  gallinarum,  146. 
Cholera,  103,  188. 

Circulatory  system,  diseases  of,  182. 
Cleanliness,  14. 
Cloacitis,  280. 
Coccidia,  96. 
Coccidiosis,  71,  285. 
Coccidium    tenellum,    285 ;     cuniculi, 

285  ;    life  history  of,  73. 
Cock  eggs,  273.  .\ 

Cold,  151 ;    treatment  for,  152.  ^ 

Cole  and  Hadley,  75,  95,  96,  285. 
Comb,  frozen,  326 ;    white,  233,  236. 
Common  measure,  equivalents  of,  56. 
Complement  fixation,  127. 
Congestion  of  lungs,  177  ;  brain,  195. 
Constipation,  69,  70. 
Constitutional  \agor,  breeding  for,  3  ; 

definition,  6. 
Comoilsions,  83,  196. 
Copper  poisoning,  83. 
Corrosive  sublimate,  54. 
Cotton  seed  oil,  54. 
Cremation,  31. 
Crematory,  31,  33. 
Creolin,  152. 
Cresol  soap,  17. 
Cresol  solution,  15  ;   disinfectant,  17. 


Crooked  breast  bone,  310. 

Crop,    impacted    (crop    bound),    58; 

inflammation  of,   61  ;     catarrh  of, 

61;    enlarged,    62;       inflated,    63; 

paralyzed,  105. 
Crop,    post-mortem    appearance    of, 

48,  294. 
Cropping  poultry  ranges,  27. 
Croup,  153. 
Crurea,  143. 

Curtain-front  house,  11  ;  interior,  13. 
Curtice,  102. 
Curtis,  78,  258,  274. 
Cuts,  treatment  of,  324. 
Cysticercoid,  136. 
Cytodites  nudus,  180,  181. 

Dammann  and  Manegold,  190. 

Dampness,  10,  21. 

Dandelion,  for  liver  trouble,  92. 

Davainea  proglottina,  142. 

Davainea  tetragona,  137. 

Dawson,  188. 

Dead  birds,  disposal  of,  30. 

Decayed  food,  85. 

Denny,  207. 

Depluming,  scabies,  225. 

Depperich,  113. 

Dermanyssus  gallinae,  214. 

Diagnosis  of  disease,  36. 

Diagnosis,  table  for  differential,  37, 
50. 

Diarrhea,  64,  67,  70,  85,  98,  105,  120, 
154,  167,  174;  bacillary,  287; 
bloody,  85,  91,  167;  diagnosis  of, 
292;  watery,  89;  white,  95,  112. 
283. 

Digestive  organs,  inflammation  of, 
106. 

Diphtheria,  a\nan,  155,  164  ;  vaccine 
for,  169  ;    serum  for,  169. 

Diphtheritic  roup,  164,  166. 

Disease,  prevention  of,  3. 

Disinfection,  15  ;  formalin,  16  ;  form- 
aldehyde gas,  16  ;    cresol,  17. 

Dispharagus  spiralis,  143  ;  nasutus. 
143. 

Dissection  of  bird,  46. 

Distemper,  154. 

Distoma  ovatum,  145  ;   species,  145. 


Index 


337 


Double-yolked  eggs,  274. 

Dove  cot  bug,  230. 

Drepanidotcenia         infundihuliformis , 

135. 
Drinking  water,  24 ;     antiseptic  for, 

25. 
Droppings,  green,  105  ;    normal,  65. 
Dropsy,  80. 
von  Durski,  257,  279. 
Dysentery,  67. 
Dyspepsia,  70. 

Edema  of  wattles,  244. 

Egg,    bound,   266 ;     breaking   of,   in 

oviduct,  271  ;     laying,  physiology 

of,  249. 
Eggs,  abnormal,  272 ;     abortion  of, 

256;     soft-shelled,    273;     yolkless, 

273;    "cock,"  273;    "witch,"  273; 

double-yolked,  274  ;    triple-yolked, 

274  ;    inclusions  in,   278  ;    spots  in 

278 ;   small,  273. 
Ehrenreich,  313,  320. 
Ehrenreich  and  Michaelis,  313. 
Ellerman  and  Bang,  186. 
Emaciation,  120. 
Emphysema,  304. 
Endocarditis,  183. 

Enlargement  of  heart,  184 ;  liver,  90. 
Enteritis,  67. 

Enterohepatitis,  infectious,  94. 
Epidermoptes  bilobatus,   226  ;      bifur- 

catus,  226. 
Epilepsy,  196. 

Epithelioma  contagiosum,   155,   237. 
Epizootic,  154. 
Epsom  salts,  53. 
Ergot  of  rye,  84. 
Eversion  of  oviduct,  263. 
Exercise,  29. 
External  parasites,  30,  203  ;    keeping 

poultry  free,  203. 
Extractor,  gape  worm,  310. 
Eye  worm,  232. 
Eyes,  roup  of,  157,  162. 

Fally,  156. 

Fantham,  75. 

Fatty  degeneration  of  liver,  92. 

Favus,  226,  233. 


Feeding,  hygienic,  21. 

Fleas,  230,  231. 

Flukes,  145. 

Follicle,  246  ;    failure  to  rupture,  257. 

Formaldehyde  gas,  16. 

Formalin,  16. 

Fowl  cholera,  102,  188. 

Fowl  plague,  112. 

Fowl  typhoid,  102,  111,  186. 

Freese,  113. 

Freidberger  and  Frohner,  237,  241. 

Fresh  air,  10,  19. 

Frozen  comb  and  wattles,  326. 

Funk,  197. 

Gadow,  149. 

Gage,  288,  297. 

Gage  and  Opperman,  53, 139, 140, 141. 

Galli-Valerio,  160. 

Game,  Cornish  Indian,  251. 

Gangrene  of  oviduct,  271. 

Gapes,  304. 

Gastritis,  63. 

Geese,  113. 

Gerhartz,  249. 

Gingylonema  ingluvicola,  143. 

Gizzard,  post-mortem  appearance  of, 
48. 

Gleet,  vent,  280. 

Glossary,  329. 

Going  light,  173. 

Goniodes  dissimilis,  207. 

Gonococcus,  281. 

Gout,  101,  199;  visceral,  200;  articu- 
lar, 200. 

Greene,  85,  91,  269. 

Green  droppings,  105. 

Green  food,  24. 

Grippe,  154. 

di  Gristiana,  201. 

Guerin,  160. 

Guinea-fowl,  113. 

Gurit,  257. 

Hadley,  105,  109,  110. 
Hadley  and  Amison,  110. 
Hadley  and  Beach,  155,  239,  243. 
Hadley  and  Kirkpatrick,  286. 
Haiduk,  218,  219,  220,  221,  223. 
Hamilton,  253. 


338 


Index 


Haring  and  Kofoid,  156. 

Harrison,  240. 

Harrison  and  Streit,  155,  158, 160, 162. 

Harvest-bug,  227. 

Hauer,  193. 

Health,  breeding  for,  3. 

Health  type,  4. 

Heart,  diseases  of,  182  ;  enlargement 
of,  184  ;  hypertrophy  of,  184  ;  rup- 
ture of,  184. 

Heart,  post-mortem  appearance  of, 
47,  106,  113,  182,  183,  188,  200. 

Heart  sac,  dropsy  of,  182. 

Heat  prostrations,  195. 

Hebrant  and  Antoine,  200. 

Helodrilas  parvus,  143. 

Hermaphroditism,  252. 

Hemorrhage,  of  brain,  194. 

Heterakis  perspicillurn,  143,  144. 

Higgins,  115. 

Hill,  182,  222. 

Himmelberger,  119,  127. 

Hirschfeld  and  Jacoby,  185. 

Horton,  300. 

Housing,  poultry,  9. 

Hydrogen  peroxide,  152. 

Hygiene,  8  ;    essentials  of,  35. 

Hyperaemia,  cerebral,  195. 

Hypertrophy  of  heart,  184  ;  of  liver, 
90 ;  of  yolk,  257. 

Illness,  symptoms  of,  37. 

Immunity  against  cholera,  109. 

Inclusions  in  eggs,  278. 

Indigestion,  70. 

Infectious  enterohepatitis,  94. 

Infectious  leukaemia.  111,  112,  185. 

Inflammation  of  mouth,  171  ;  of  ovi- 
duct, 262. 

Influenza,  154. 

Internal  parasites,  133. 

Inoculation  for  cholera,  109 ;  for 
roup,  169. 

Intestinal  cocciciosis,  285. 

Intestinal  worms,  133,  196. 

Intestines,  congestion  of,  86. 

Intestines,  post-mortem  appearance 
of,  48,  68,  86,  87,  106,  123,  124, 
294,  303. 

Isolation  of  sick  birds,  34. 


Jaundice,  94. 
Jewett,  75. 
Johne's  disease,  119. 
Jones,  288,  297. 

von  Katz,  156,  160. 

Kaupp,  231,  300. 

Kidneys,  congestion  of,  86  ;  diseases 
.  of,  199;  enlarged,  199;  inflamma- 
tion of,  106  ;  post-mortem  appear- 
ance of,  49,  86,  122,  199,  294. 

King  and  Hoffman,  113. 

Kingsley,  155. 

Kitt,  110. 

Knemidocoptes  (Dermatoryctes)  (Sar- 
coptes)  mutans,  216,  218,  220,  221. 

Koch,  320. 

Koch  and  Rabinowitsch,  119,  122, 
128. 

Kolle  and  Hetsch,  191,  192. 

Lameness,  120,  121. 

Land,  26. 

Landois,  279. 

Landsterner,  113. 

Larynx,  147. 

Laurie,  228,  229. 

Lawry,  211. 

Lead  as  poison,  83. 

Leg  weakness,  301. 

Leukaemia,  185;  infectious.  111, 
112,   186. 

Levaditi  and  Manouclian,  191. 

Levaditi  and  Mcintosh,  193. 

Lewis,  5. 

Lewis  and  Clark,  281. 

Lice,  206  ;  life  history  of,  207  ;  mer- 
curial ointment  for,  205  ;  method 
of  infestation,  208. 

Lice  powder,  how  to  make,  211. 

Life  history  of  coccidium,  73. 

Light,  19. 

Limberneck,  86,  199,  202. 

Lipeurus  heterographus,  207  ;  varia- 
bilis, 207. 

Lisoff,  110. 

Litter,  20. 

Liver,  congestion  of,  86,  88,  93 ; 
diseases  of,  87  ;  nodules  on,  87 ; 
spotted  87,    92,  95;  hypertrophy, 


Index 


339 


90 ;  enlarged,  90 ;  fatty  degenera- 
tion of,  92  ;  atrophy  of,  93  ;  post- 
mortem appearance  of,  47,  68,  86, 
87,  92,  93,  94,  95,  98,  106,  122,  125, 
187,  294,  303. 

Liver  disease,  87 ;  cause  of,  88 ; 
treatment  of,  89. 

Lounoy  and  Bruhl,  191. 

Lowenstein,  129. 

Lungs,  congestion  of,  177 ;  post- 
mortem appearance  of,  48,  122, 
125,  147,  294. 

Lye  as  poison,  81. 

Maine  Experiment  Station,  11,  17, 
24,  25,  27,  31,  164,  204,  211. 

Male  reproductive  organs,  diseases 
of,  282. 

Mallophaga,  206. 

Mange,  226. 

Manson's  eye  worm,  232. 

Manteufel,  243. 

Marchoux,  114. 

Martin  and  Robertson,  146. 

Materia  medica,  52. 

Measures,  56. 

Medical  Record,  129. 

Medicines,  52. 

Megnin,  94,  217,  235,  305,  307. 

Menopon  biseriatum,  206  ;  pallidum, 
206,  208. 

Mercurial  ointment,  205. 

Mercui-y,  bichloride  of,  54,  324. 

Mercury  poisoning,  83,  205. 

Mesogonimus  commutataris,  145. 

Metchnikoff,  300. 

Metric  equivalents,  56. 

Meyer  and  Crocker,  76. 

Mitchell  and  Bloomer,  111. 

Mites,  114,  213;  air-sac,  180,  227; 
connective  tissue,  227  ;  depluming, 
224  ;    harvest-bug,  227  ;    red,  214. 

Mohler  and  Buckley,  176. 

Monocercomonas  gallinarum,  100. 

Moore,  102,  111,  137,  186,  188,  189. 

Moore  and  Ward,  115. 

Morse,  25,  131,  285,  286. 

Mouth,  inflammation  of,  171. 

Muller,  R.,  160. 

Mulier,  J.,  107. 


Murray,  227. 
Mycosis,  173. 
Myocarditis  diphtheritica,  183. 

Nematode  worms,  142. 

Nervous  system,  diseases  of,  194. 

New  flock  building,  131. 

New  Jersey  Experiment  Station,  5. 

Neumann,  145. 

Nitrate  of  soda  as  poison,  81. 

Nits,  208. 

Nodular  tseniasis,  137,  138. 

Notocotyle  triserialis,  145. 

Obstruction  of  oviduct,  266  ;  of  vent, 
69. 

Ointment,  for  wounds,  55 ;  mer- 
curial, 205. 

Operation  for  egg  bound,  269  ;  im- 
pacted crop,  60. 

Oppel,  150. 

Oregon  Experiment  Station,  300. 

Osborn,  H.,  214. 

Ostertag  and  Ackermann,  106. 

Ovary,  246  ;  atrophy  of,  251  ;  dis- 
eases of,  251  ;  gangrene  of,  255 ; 
tumors  on,  256. 

Ovary,  post-mortem  appearance  of, 
48,  122. 

Overfeeding,  24. 

Oviduct,  248,  260  ;  anatomy  of,  258  ; 
diseases  of,  258  ;  inflammation  of, 
262  ;  prolapse  of,  263  ;  obstruc- 
tion of,  266;  rupture  of,  270; 
gangrene  of,  271  ;  liroken  egg  in, 
271. 

Ovule,  246. 

Oxysperura  mansoni,  232. 

Paralysis,  partial,  85. 

Parasites,    external,    203 ;      internal, 

133. 
Parrots,  119,  121. 
Pasteur,  104. 
Pearl  and  Curtis,  78,  250. 
Pearl  and  Surface,  328. 
Pearson,  196,  233. 
Pearson  and  Warren,  138,  195. 
Pericarditis,  182. 
Pericardium,  inflammation  of,  182. 


340 


Index 


Peritoneum,  post-mortem  appearance 
of,  49,  79. 

Peritonitis,  77. 

Permanganate,  potassium,  25,  152 ; 
for  roup,  163. 

Pernot,  115,  120. 

Pfeiler  and  Rehse,  112. 

Pharynx,  147. 

Pheasants,  113,  253,  254. 

Philips,  170. 

Phosphorus  poisoning,  84,  113. 

Physiology,  of  reproductive  organs, 
245  ;    respiratory  organs,  147. 

Pick,  320. 

Pickens,  320,  322. 

Pierce,  216. 

Pip,  171. 

Plague,  fowl,  102,  112. 

Plymouth  Rock,  251. 

Pneumomycosis,  302. 

Pneumonia,  178. 

Poisons,  81 ;  ptomaine,  85  ;  treat- 
ment for,  86. 

Poisonous  plants,  85. 

Polish,  White  Crested  Black,  251. 

Polyneuritis,  197. 

Post-mortem  appearance  of  brain, 
194  ;  ceca,  97,  98,  294  ;  heart,  47, 
106,  113,  182,  183,  188,  200;  in- 
testines, 48,  68,  86,  87,  106,  123, 
124,  294,  303  ;  kidneys,  49,  86,  122, 
199,  294 ;  liver,  47,  68,  86,  87,  92, 
93,  94,  95,  98,  106,  122,  125,  187, 
294,  303  ;  lungs,  48,  122,  125,  147, 
174,  177,  178,  183,  188,  294,  303 ; 
ovary,  48,  122 ;  spleen,  48,  68,  87, 
122,  125,  294. 

Post-mortem  appearances,  47,  48; 
diagnostic  value  of,  49;  table  of, 
50. 

Post-mortem  examination,  40 ;  di- 
rections for  making,  46. 

Potassium  permanganate,  25,  152 ; 
for  roup,  163. 

Poultry  surgery,  324. 

Powder,  lice,  211. 

Prevention  of  cholera,  107 ;  of  dis- 
ease, 3. 

Prolapse  of  oviduct,  263. 

Prowazek,  192. 


Ptomaine  poisoning,  85. 
Ptychotes  coptica,  169. 
Pulex  gallinae,  230,  231. 

Rabies,  114. 

Range  sanitation,  26. 

Ransom,  136,  143,  232. 

Rats,  156. 

Red  mite,  214. 

Reidenbach,  169. 

Reproductive  organs,  247  ;  anatomy 
and  physiology,  245  ;  diseases  of, 
245  ;    diseases  of  male,  282. 

Respiratory  system,  anatomy  and 
physiology,  147  ;    diseases  of,  147. 

Rettger  and  Harvey,  287. 

Rettger  and  Kirkpatrick,  288. 

Rettger  and  Stoneburn,  291,  292, 
293.  294. 

Rettger,  Kirkpatrick  and  Jones,  289, 
290,  291,  295,  297,  299. 

Rheumatism,  199,  201  ;  in  tubercu- 
losis, 121. 

Rhode  Island  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  .109,  110. 

Robinson,  90,  224,  236,  265,  266,  301. 

Roebuck,  157,  166. 

Rosenthal,  114. 

Rotation,  crops  and  chickens,  27. 

Rottiger,  311. 

Round  worms,  142. 

Roup,  155 ;  nasal,  156  ;  diphtheritic, 
164. 

Rous,  314,  316,  321. 

Rous  and  Lange,  314,  317. 

Rous  and  Murphy,  314,  318,  319. 

Rous,  Murphy  and  Tytler,  313,  314, 
318,  321. 

Rupture,  of  blood  vessels,  184  ;  heart, 
184 ;   oviduct,  270. 

Russ,  112. 

Saccharornyces  albicans,  173. 

Salmon,  4,  77,  96,  102,  115,  129,  139, 
144,  154,  156,  182,  183,  188,  196, 
209,  226,  255,  265,  266,  280,  301. 

Salt,  as  poison,  81. 

Salts,  Epsom,  53. 

Salvarsan  (606),  193. 

Sanitation,  9. 


Index 


341 


Sarcomatosis,  101. 

Sarcoptes  mutans,  240. 

Sarcoptes    loevis    var.    gallinoe,    224, 

225. 
Scabies,  depluming,  224. 
Scaly  leg,  216. 
Schiffmann,  114. 
Schmid,  156. 
Schalze,  150. 
Scott,  143. 
Seddon,  244. 

Serum  for  diphtheria,  169. 
Sickness,  isolation,  34. 
Sigwart,  156,  169. 
Skeleton,  41. 
Skin,  diseases  of,  233. 
Sleepy  disease,  189. 
Small  eggs,  273. 
Smith,  95,  96,  286. 
Smith  and  Ten  Broeck,    111,    112, 

291. 
Soft-shelled  eggs,  273. 
Sore-head,  237,  239. 
Sour  milk  for  white  diarrhea,  299. 
Sparrows,  119. 
Spirochceta  gallinarum,  191. 
Spirochceta  marchouxi,  230. 
Spirochsetosis,  190. 
Spleen,  post-mortem  appearance  of, 

48,  68,  87,  122,  125,  294. 
"Spotted  liver,"  100. 
Spots  in  eggs,  278. 
Staggering,  195. 
Stieda,  149. 

StUes,  135,  136,  138,  142. 
Stock  tonic,  71. 
Stomach,  inflammation  of,  63. 
Storrs  Experiment  Station,  288. 
Streit,  160. 
Streptococcus   capsulatus    gallinarum, 

190. 
Strychnine,  84. 
Suffram,  81. 
Sunlight,  10,  19. 
Surface,  259. 
Surgery,  poultry,  324. 
Sweet,  156,  240. 
Symplectoptes  cysticola,  227. 
Symptoms,  table  of  external,  37. 
Syngamus  trachealis,  305,  306,  307. 


Table  of  post-mortem  appearances, 
50. 

Tables  of  symptoms,  37. 

Tablets,  54. 

Taeniasis,  nodular,  137. 

Tainted  ground,  27. 

Tape  worms,  134  ;  treatment,  139  ; 
prevention,  141. 

Tears,  treatment  of,  324. 

Tetranychus  (Leptus)  autumnalis,  221 . 

Theobald,  145,  181,  225,  227,  228, 
232. 

Thompson,  D.  S.,  7. 

Thompson,  J.  A.,  145. 

Thrombosis,  185. 

Thrush,  173. 

Ticks,  114,  192,  228. 

Tonic,  71. 

Trachea,  147. 

Trematodes,  145. 

T richomastix  gallinarum,  146. 

Trichomonas  gallinarum,  146. 

Trichosoma  strumosum,  143. 

Triple-yolked  eggs,  274. 

Trypanosoma  eberthi,  146. 

Tubercle,  122. 

Tuberculin,  126 ;   reaction  to,  127. 

Tuberculosis,  115,  137,  180;  diagno- 
sis, 125  ;  method  of  contagion,  128  ; 
treatment  for,  129. 

Tumors,  101,  121,  312  ;  ovarian,  256; 
kinds  of,  315. 

Turkeys,  blackhead  in,  94,  113. 

Typhoid,  fowl,  102,  111,  187. 

Tyzzer  and  Ordway,  315,  318,  321. 

Uhlenhuth  and  Gross,  193. 
Uhlenhuth  and  Manteufel,  156,  160. 
Ulcers,  121. 

United  States   Department  of  Agri- 
culture, 216. 
Urates,  green,  105. 
Urates,  yellow,  104. 

Vaccine  for  diphtheria,  169. 

Vale,  144,  236,  304. 

Van  Es,  125. 

Van  Es  and  Schalk,   119,   123,   125, 

126,  127,  130. 
Vedder  and  Williams,  197. 


342 


Index 


Vent  gleet,  280. 

Vertigo,  195. 

Vigor,  breeding  for,  3. 

Viscera,  normal,  43. 

Visceral  gout,  200. 

Vomiting,  61. 

Von  Linstor  and  Railliet,  145. 

Ward,  106,  108,  122,  124,  128,  240. 

Warthin,  185. 

Wasting  of  liver,  93. 

Water,  drinking,  24. 

Wattles,  edema  of,  244  ;   frozen,  326. 

Weights,  56. 

White  comb,  233,  236. 

White  diarrhea,  95,  112,  283;    bacil- 

lary,  287  ;    diagnosis  of,  292. 
Wilcox  and  McClelland,  232. 


Windpipe,  147. 

Witch  eggs,  273. 

Woods,  293. 

Worms,  133  ;    eye,  232  ;    flukes,  145 ; 

gape,  305  ;  round,  142  ;  tape,  134 ; 

trematode,  145. 
Wounds,  treatment  of,  324. 
Wright,  1,  236,  256,  281,  309. 
Wry-neck,  202. 
Wyandottes,  Silver-laced,  7. 

Yarrell,  253,  254. 
Yolk  hypertrophy,  257. 
Yolkless  eggs,  273. 

Zinc  as  poison,  83. 

Zurn,  79,  82,  115,  137,  139,  183,  235, 
264,  266. 


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Modes  of  Research  in  Genetics 

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only  the  essentials  and  all  of  them — of  poultry-raising  are  given.  To 
write  such  a  book  has  been  Mr.  Valentine's  purpose  In  "The  Beginner 
in  Poultry"  he  discusses  the  different  breeds  of  fowls,  the  types  of  houses, 
feeding  and  the  kinds  of  food,  raising  chickens  for  the  market  and  for 
their  eggs,  diseases  and  their  cures  and  everything  else  which  will  be  of 
value  for  the  one  who  is  starting  out — and  much  for  the  seasoned  poul- 
try-raiser as  well. 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS  64-66  Fifth  Avenue  NEW  YORK 


THE  RURAL  MANUALS  EDITED  BY  L.  H.  BAILEY 


Manual  of  Farm  Animals 


A  Practical  Guide  to  the  Choosing,  Breeding  and  Keep  of  Horses,  Cattle,  Sheep 
and  Swine 

By  MERRITT    W.   HARPER 

Assistant  Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry  in  the  New  York  State  College  of  Agri- 
culture at  Cornell  University 

Illustrated,  decorated  cloth,  i2mo,  j^j  pages,  index,  %3.oo 

"The  work  is  invaluable  as  a  practical  guide  in  raising  farm  animals."  —  Morning  Telegram. 
"  A  book  deserving  of  close  study  as  well  as  being  handy  for  reference,  and  should  be  in  the 
possession  of  every  farmer  interested  in  stock."  —  Rural  World. 


Manual  of  Gardening 

A  Practical  Guide  to  the  Making  of  Home  Grounds  and  the  Growing  of  Flowers, 
Fruits,  and  Vegetables  for  Home  Use 

By  L.   H.  bailey 

Illustrated,  cloth,  i2mo,  ^44  pages,  $2.00 

This  new  work  is  a  combination  and  revision  of  the  main  parts  of  two  other  books  by  the 
same  author,  "  Garden  Making"  and  "  Practical  Garden  Book,"  together  with  much  new  ma- 
terial and  the  result  of  the  experience  of  ten  added  years.  Among  the  persons  who  collabo- 
rated in  the  preparation  of  the  other  two  books,  and  whose  contributions  have  been  freely  used 
in  this  one,  are  C.  E.  Hunn,  a  gardener  of  long  experience;  Professor  Ernest  Walker,  reared 
as  a  commercial  florist;  Professor  L.  R.  Taft,  and  Professor  F.  A.  Waugh,  well  known  for 
their  studies  and  writings  on  horticultural  subjects. 


A   STANDARD   WORK   REVISED   AND   ENLARGED 

The  Farm  and  Garden  Rule  Book 
By  liberty    H.  BAILEY 

Illustrated,  cloth,  12 mo,  $2.00 

When  Professor  Bailey's  "  Horticulturist's  Rule  Book  "  was  published  nearly  twenty-five 
years  ago,  the  volume  became  a  standard  agricultural  work,  running  through  sixteen  editions. 
Taking  this  book  as  a  basis  the  author  has  now  made  a  wholly  new  book,  extending  it  to  cover 

■  the  field  of  general  farming,  stock-raising,  dairying,  poultry-rearing,  horticulture,  gardening, 
forestry,  and  the  like.     It  is  essentially  a  small  cyclopedia  of  ready  rules  and  references 

■  packed  full  from  cover  to  cover  of  condensed,  meaty  information  and  precepts  on  almost  every 
leading  subject  connected  with  country  life. 


THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

Publishers  64-66  Fifth  Avenue  New  York 


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